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DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 
BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


BULLETIN.  1916,  No.  29 


EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF 
WYOMING 


BY 

A.  C.  MONAHAN 

fPEOALlST  IN  RURAL  SCHOOL  AI^^IiNlSTRATlOW 
AND 

KATHERINE  M.  COOK 

ASSISTANT  IN  RURAL  EDUCATION.  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFRCE 

1917 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive,org/details/educationalsurveOOmonarich 


.•«       -•• 


•  -         •• 


••••         .•' 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  irfTER^OR 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


BULLETIN,  1916,  No.  29 


EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF 
WYOMING 


BY 

A.  C.  MONAHAN 

SPECIAUST  IN  RURAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

AND 

KATHERINE  M.  COOK 

ASSISTANT  IN  RURAL  EDUCATION,  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFHCE 

1917 


EDUCATION  DEFT. 

ADDITIONAL  COPIES 

OF  THIS  PUBLICATION  MAY  BE  PROCURED  FROM 

THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  DOCUMENTS 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

AT 

15  cp:nts  per  copy 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 5 

Letter  to  the  commissioner 7 

I.  A  sketch  of  the  history  of  education  in  Wyoming 11 

Early  history 11 

Present  system 21 

II.  Education  in  the  State 27 

Buildings  and  equipment 29 

Enrollment  and  attendance 39 

Teaching  corps 43 

Instruction 53 

Supervision 60 

III.  Revenue  for  the  support  of  schools 66 

Inequalities  of  the  present  system  of  taxation 69 

IV.  Movements  in  other  States  as  outlined  in  recommendations  for  Wyoming.  83 

V.  Recommendations 96 

VI.  Appendix :  statistical  comparisons 105 

3 


iviie40616 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

Bureau  of  Education, 

Washington,  August  28,  1916. 

Sir:  At  the  request  of  the  code  committee  appointed  by  the 
governor  of  the  State  of  Wyoming  in  compHance  with  an  act  of  the 
legislature  of  that  State  creating  the  committee  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  the  school  system  of  the  State  and  recommending  new  leg- 
islation, I  detailed  A.  C.  Monahan,  speciaHst  in  agricultural  educa- 
tion and  rural  school  administration,  and  Katherine  M.  Cook,  assist- 
ant in  rural  education  in  this  bureau,  to  make  a  careful  study  of 
the  laws  of  the  State  pertaining  to  education,  the  administration  of 
the  State  school  system  and  certain  phases  of  the  work  of  the  schools, 
and  to  make  such  recommendations  for  the  improvement  of  the 
schools  through  legislation  and  otherwise  as  the  facts  revealed  by 
this  study  might  seem  to  justify.  This  they  have  done,  and  the  report 
submitted  to  the  code  committee  has  been  approved  by  me.  For 
the  use  of  the  people  of  the  State  of  Wyoming  and  for  the  use  of 
students  of  education  throughout  the  country  I  recommend  that 
this  report,  a  copy  of  which  I  am  transmitting  herewith,  be  pub- 
lished as  a  bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

P.  P.  Claxton, 

Commissioner. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

5 


LETTER  TO  THE  COMMISSIONER. 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

Bureau  of  Education, 

WasUngton,  May  26,  1916, 
Sm:  There  are  submitted  herewith  the  results  of  a  survey  and 
study  of  the  pubUc-school  system  of  Wyoming,  with  recommenda- 
tions concerning  the  legislation  needed  for  its  improvement.  This 
work  was  imdertaken  at  your  orders  as  a  result  of  a  request  for 
assistance  from  the  State  of  Wyoming.  The  thirteenth  general 
assembly  of  the  State,  meeting  in  1915,  acting  on  the  suggestion  of 
prominent  educators  of  the  State  under  the  leadership  of  the  State 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  enacted  a  law  which  provided 
for  the  formation  of  a  school  code  committee  to  make  a  thorough 
investigation  into  the  needs  of  the  public  schools  of  Wyoming  and 
the  laws  under  which  they  are  organized  and  operated;  to  make  a 
comparative  study  of  such  other  public  schools  as  may  be  advisable; 
and  to  report  to  the  fourteenth  Legislature  of  the  State  of  Wyoming 
recommending  a  revised  code  of  school  laws. 

In  compliance  with  this  act,  the  governor  of  the  State  appointed 
the  following  men  and  women  to  constitute  the  Wyoming  school 
code  committee:  Miss  Edith  K.  O.  Clark,  State  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  Cheyenne,  chairman;  Miss  Jennie  McGuffey, 
county  superintendent  of  schools.  Park  County,  Cody;  Mr.  John  T. 
Hawkes,  principal  of  the  Sheridan  High  School,  Sheridan;  Dean  J. 
O.  Creager,  of  the  College  of  Education,  State  University,  Laramie; 
and  Mr.  J.  J.  Underwood,  ranchman.  Underwood.  The  undersigned 
were  designated  as  representatives  from  the  Bureau  of  Education  to 
assist  in  an  investigation  and  to  make  a  report  with  recommenda- 
tions for  transmittal  to  the  committee.  The  first  meeting  of  the 
school  code  committee  was  called  at  Laramie  in  July  of  1915;  all 
members  but  one  were  present.  A  representative  of  the  Bureau  of 
Education  attended  this  meeting.  After  careful  discussion  of  vari- 
ous plans  and  procedure,  a  general  survey  of  educational  conditions 
in  the  State  was  decided  upon  and  tentative  plans  were  laid  for  col- 
lecting material  for  such  a  survey. 

Method  and  scope  of  the  survey. — ^The  school  code  committee  held  a 
second  conference  in  Cheyenne  early  in  November  of  the  same  year. 
All  members  and  both  representatives  of  the  bureau  were  present. 

7 


8  LETTER   TO   THE  COMMISSIONER. 

Plans  for  the  conduct  of  a  careful  survey  of  education  in  the  State 
were  presented  and  approved,  as  follows : 

(a)  A  thorough  investigation  of  grounds,  buildings,  water  supply, 
etc.,  conducted  through  personal  investigation  and  collection  of  in- 
formation through  questionnaires; 

(h)  A  careful  inquiry  into  the  education  and  professional  quali- 
fications, living  conditions,  and  salaries  of  teachers,  conducted  in  the 
same  manner; 

(c)  An  intensive  study  of  instruction  offered  in  three  counties 
selected  as  typical  of  general  conditions  made  by  personal  investiga- 
tion by  members  of  the  committee  and  representatives  of  the  bureau; 

(d)  An  investigation  into  qualifications  and  work  of  the  coimty 
superintendents ; 

(e)  A  study  of  financial  support.  State,  coimty,  and  local; 

(/)  General  information  concerning  high-school  and  city-school 
systems. 

The  point  of  view  which  the  investigators  kept  constantly  in  mind 
in  these  inquiries  was  that  of  general  measurement  of  the  system  as  a 
State  system  in  terms  of  service  to  the  State.  In  addition  to  the 
questionnaires,  letters  were  sent  through  the  county  superintendents 
to  several  himdred  prominent  people  in  the  State,  setting  forth  the 
general  purpose  of  the  survey  and  asking  for  cooperation  and  sug- 
gestions. 

In  April,  1916,  another  meeting  of  the  committee  was  held  in 
Cheyenne.  Reports  showed  that  the  plans  formulated  at  preceding 
meetings  were  being  successfully  carried  out.  The  general  plans 
pursued  had  been  discussed  at  the  meeting  of  the  State  Teachers' 
Association  at  Thermopolis  and  progress  was  being  made  along  all 
lines  previously  agreed  upon.  It  was  decided  to  ask  that  the  gov- 
ernor appoint  an  auxiliary  committee  of  15  prominent  citizens  to  act 
in  conjimction  with  the  school  code  committee;  and  that  a  general 
education  conference  be  held  in  July  at  the  University  of  Wyoming, 
to  be  called  and  presided  over  by  the  governor  of  the  State,  the  pur- 
pose of  which  should  be  to  discuss  the  recommendations  submitted 
by  the  committee,  to  disseminate  information  concerning  them,  and 
to  arouse  public  interest  in  better  school  conditions  for  Wyoming. 

The  survey  from  the  beginning  has  had  in  view  the  single  purpose 
of  the  educational  welfare  of  the  children  of  the  State.  There  has 
been  a  spirit  of  cooperation,  disinterested  labor,  and  personal  sacri- 
fice on  the  part  of  members  of  the  committee  and  others  who  have 
given  of  their  time  and  service.  Assisting  in  the  survey,  in  addition 
to  the  members  of  the  committee,  were  Miss  Henrietta  Kolshom, 
Laramie;  Supt.  Ira  Fee,  of  Cheyenne;  Dr.  J.  E.  Butterworth,  of  the 
University  of  Wyoming;  and  Supt.  Joseph  Burch,  of  Kemmerer.  In 
addition,  many  county  and  city  superintendents,  teachers,  and  school 


LETTEE  TO   THE  COMMISSIONER.  9 

officers  responded  to  requests  for  information,  and  assisted  in  other 
ways;  Dr.  Harrison  C.  Dale,  of  the  university,  wrote  the  historical 
statement  utilized  in  this  report. 

The  material  collected  by  the  committee  and  other  workers  was 
turned  over  to  the  Bureau  of  Education.  The  accompanying  report 
is  made  on  the  basis  of  these,  of  supplementary  studies  on  Wyoming 
and  education  in  Wyoming  from  all  available  sources,  and  on  per- 
sonal observations  of  instruction,  supervision,  and  general  educational 
conditions. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

Katherine  M.  Cook, 

Assistant  in  Rural  Education. 
A.    C.    MONAHAN, 
Specialist  in  Rural  School  Administration. 
The  Commissioner  of  Education. 


AN  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMING. 


I.  A  SKETCH  OF  THE   HISTOKY  OF  EDUCATION  IN 

WYOMING. 


EARLY  HISTORY.* 

The  educational  history  of  Wyoming  dates  from  the  creation  of  the 
Territory,  July  25,  1868.  When  the  first  census  was  taken,  in  1860, 
there  were  three  groups  of  permanent  settlements,  two  of  some  100 
or  150  each  near  Fort  Bridger  and  Fort  Laramie,  and  a  few  isolated 
ranches  along  the  valley  of  the  North  Platte  in  what  are  now  Platte 
and  Goshen  Counties.  The  total  population  of  the  Territory  in 
1860,  including  the  wandering  prospectors  and  trappers  who  occa- 
sionally pushed  into  the  northern  and  western  portions,  numbered 
probably  not  more  than  400.  Within  the  next  decade,  however, 
because  of  the  penetration  of  this  region  by  the  Union  Pacific  Rail- 
road, the  population  increased  rapidly. 

The  following  table  shows  the  population  of  Wyoming  at  various 
dates: 

1860 2  400 

1870 9, 118 

1875 2  14  951 

1880 20,  789 

1885 2  31^  391 

1890 60,  705 

1900 92,  531 

1905 101, 816 

1910 3  145^  9g5 

1915 '^  141,  705 

Provision  for  the  regulation  and  maintenance  of  education  was  made 
in  the  first  session  of  the  Territorial  assembly  and  approved  Decem- 
ber 10,  1869.  According  to  provisions  of  the  act  the  Territorial 
auditor  was  ex  officio  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and  his 
stipend  for  this  service  was  $500.  His  duties  as  defined  by  the 
statutes  were  almost  identically  those  of  the  present  superintendent 
as  outlined  in  the  statutes  now  in  force  except  that  the  apportion- 
ment was  made  on  aggregate  attendance  instead  of  on  the  census 
basis. 

1  Digest  from  an  article  written  by  Harrison  C.  Dale,  of  the  faculty  of  the  State  University. 

2  Estimated. 

8  The  1910  figures  are  from  the  Federal  census,  while  the  1915  figures  are  from  the  State  census,  which 
was  taken  by  the  county  assessors.    It  is  estimated  that  the  1915  figures  are  incomplete  by  about  9,000. 

11 


12  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY   OF   WYOMING. 

A  f  urtlaer  act  -of  thJb  assembly  created  the  office  of  county  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  though  no  direct  provision  was  made  for  the  man- 
ner of  election.  The  county  tax  for  the  maintenance  of  schools  was 
fixed  at  not  more  than  2  mills  on  the  dollar,  and  the  county  superin- 
tendents were  required  to  report  annually  to  the  State  superintendent. 
Should  they  fail  to  do  so,  they  were  to  forfeit  the  sum  of  $100.  It 
does  not  appear  that  this  provision  was  ever  enforced  or  even  noticed, 
for  year  after  year  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction  in 
his  annual  report  bemoaned  the  laxity  of  the  coiuity  superintendents. 
The  blame,  no  doubt,  rested  quite  as  much  on  the  district  clerks  as 
upon  the  county  superintendents,  for  the  former  were  by  law  required 
to  furnish  annually  a  report  of  the  affairs  in  their  respective  districts 
containing  practically  the  same  information  which  district  clerks 
are  now  required  to  include  in  their  reports  to  the  county  superin- 
tendent. Failine  to  make  this  report  was  punishable  by  a  fine  of 
$25.  There  is  no  record,  however,  that  such  a  penalty  was  ever 
imposed. 

A  result  of  this  carelessness  is  the  absence  of  anything  like  ade- 
quate school  statistics  for  many  sections  of  the  State.  This  accounts 
for  many  of  the  omissions  and  inadequacies  of  this  history. 

The  board  of  district  directors  was  empowered  to  determine  the 
site  of  schoolhouses,  the  expenditures  for  the  erection  or  rent  of  the 
same,  and  the  curriculum  to  be  followed  in  the  lower  schools.  In 
the  matter  of  secondary  and  high  school  education  the  determination 
of  the  last-mentioned  feature  was  left  to  the  county  superintendent, 
acting  in  conjunction  with  the  district  board. 

Provision  was  also  made  that,  when  there  were  1 5  or  more  colored 
children  within  a  specified  district,  the  board  might,  with  the  approval 
of  the  county  superintendent,  provide  a  separate  school.  Appar- 
ently, however,  no  such  segregated  schools  have  ever  been  estab- 
lished, Negroes  being  admitted  to  the  schools  with  whites. 

The  district  treasurer  was  to  keep  two  distinct  funds,  one  called 
the  'Heachers'  fund,"  comprising  all  moneys  for  school  purposes, 
save  only  local  taxes  collected  in  the  district,  which  comprised  the 
^'schoolhouse^'  fund. 

The  education  act  of  1869  remained  in  force  two  years,  when  a 
few  minor  changes  were  made.  The  State  auditor  was  relieved  of 
his  ex  officio  duties  as  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction;  the 
office  was  abolished  for  the  time,  the  county  superintendents  reporting 
annually  to  the  governor. 

In  the  legislative  session  of  1873  the  whole  matter  of  education 
was  reviewed  and  altered.  The  acts  are  of  singular  importance, 
being  the  true  foundation  of  subsequent  legislation  and  of  the  system 
now  in  force.  The  act  of  1869  was  in  most  respects  repealed  and 
provisions  relative  to  the  duties  of  the  various  school  officers  replaced 


SKETCH    OF    THE   HISTORY   OF    EDUCATION    IN    WYOMING. 


13 


by  more  explicit  regulations.  The  State  librarian  (an  office  created 
two  years  previously)  was  made  ex  officio  State  superintendent  of 
public  instruction. 

The  first  report  on  public  instruction  was  made  in  1871  by  Dr.  J.  H. 
Ha5rford,  of  Laramie,  the  Territorial  auditor  for  the  preceding  bien- 
nium.  Dr.  Hayford  reported  good  schools  in  Albany  aijd  Laramie 
Counties,  fair  schools  in  Uinta  and  Carbon  Counties,  but  in  Sweet- 
water County  neither  superintendent  nor  schools.  The  report  em- 
bodied two  summaries  for  Carbon  and  Uinta  Counties,  prepared  by 
the  respective  county  superintendents,  Messrs.  R.  W.  Baxter  and 
R.  H.  Carter.     There  were  only  five  counties  at  that  time. 


Statistics  of  schools  in  Carbon  and  Uinta  Counties  in  1870. 

Counties. 

School- 
houses. 

Teachers. 

Pupils. 

Male. 

Female. 

Carbon 

1 
1 

2 
2 

1 
2 

74 

Uinta                                    

115 

At  this  date  (1870)  Wyoming  had  only  9,118  inhabitants— 8,726 
whites,  183  colored,  66  Indians  (outside  the  reservations),  and  143 
Chinese.  According  to  the  report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education  for  1873,  the  population  was  scattered  along  the  Union 
Pacific  Railroad  for  over  500  miles,  with  a  school  wherever  enough 
children  were  congregated.  The  provision  for  support  was  liberal;  it 
came  entirely  from  taxation,  the  school  lands  not  yet  having  come 
into  market.  The  fiYQ  counties  had  county  superintendents.  Lar- 
amie city  and  Cheyenne  had  graded  schools  of  three  departments 
each,  to  which  high  schools  were  later  to  be  added.  Schools  in  other 
districts,  though  small,  were  efficiently  managed. 

Beginning  with  the  year  1883,  statistical  information  becomes 
available.  The  following  figures  are  taken  from  the  manuscript 
reports  of  the  superintendents  of  public  instruction  preserved  in  the 
State  archives  at  Cheyenne : 

Table  1. — Data  on  Wyoming  schools. 


1883 

1885 

1889 

Number  of  schoolhouses 

39 

83 

3,352 
1,675 
1,677 

89 
19 
70 

$2.87 

77 
132 

4,405 
2,252 
2,153 

148 
32 
116 

1  $4. 14 

138 

Number  of  schools  taught 

230 

Number  of  pupils: 

Total 

7,052 
3,492 
3,560 

259 

Male.... 

Female 

Number  of  teachers: 

Total 

Male 

58 

Female 

201 

Cost  per  pupil  per  month 

$2  78 

1  For  explanation  of  these  cost  figures  see  History  of  Education  in  Wyoming,  by  Dale,  published  by 
State  department  of  education. 


14 


EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OF    WYOMING. 


The  character  of  the  school  buildings  in  this  period  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  hst,  incomplete  and  compiled  from  a  variety  of 
sources:  Log  building  with  a  dirt  room;  upper  room  of  a  railroad 
section  house;  rented  building;  spare  room  of  a  ranch;  vacant  office 
of  a  mining  company;  blacksmith's  shop;  basement  of  the  town 
hall;  sheep  wagon. 

On  July  10,  1890,  Wyoming  was  admitted  to  the  Union.  The  con- 
stitution and  the  first  session  of  the  State  legislature  virtually  accepted 
the  system  of  education  in  vogue  during  Territorial  days.  From  this 
point  the  modern  history  of  education  in  Wyoming  maybe  said  to  date. 

The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of  schoolhouse  construction, 
number  of  teachers,  and  number  of  pupils  since  1875,  by  five-year 
periods : 

Table  2. — Schoolhouses  and  teachers  in  Wyoming. 


Year. 

School- 
houses. 

Number  of  teachers. 

PupUs. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

1875                                                  

7 
31 
40 
58 
112 
89 
107 
141 
223 

16 
39 
150 
201 
362 
481 
690 
968 
1,411 

23 

70 

190 

259 

474 

570 

797 

1,109 

1,634 

1,222 

1880 

2,097 

4,988 

1885    

77 
198 
305 
372 
503 
640 
952 

1890                                                                   .... 

7,875 
11,253 
14,512 
18, 82:^ 
24,477 

1895 

1900                                  

1905 

1910   

1915     ...                                               .     . 

30,818 

Although  the  legislature  in  1873  and  in  1888  made  efforts  to  estab- 
hsh  uniform  textbook  adoptions,  such  regulations  were  not  successfully 
carried  out.  The  provision  for  free  textbooks  was  adopted  in  1 90 1 ,  and 
physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the  use  of  alcohol 
and  narcotics,  were  made  compulsory  subjects  in  1885.  In  1910  the 
study  of  humane  treatment  of  animals  was  added  and  boards  were 
required  to  purchase  Coutant's  History  of  Wyoming  and  CarroU's 
The  Sahhath  as  an  American  War  Day. 

Certification. — In  the  education  act  of  1 873  the  county  superintend- 
ent of  schools  was  authorized — 

to  examine  persons,  and  if  in  his  opinion  such  persons  were  qualified  to  teach  in 
public  schools,  to  give  a  certificate,  authorizing  him  or  her  to  teach  a  public  school  in 
his  county  for  one  year.  Whenever  practicable,  the  examination  of  teachers  shall  be 
competitive,  and  the  certificate  shall  be  graded  according  to  the  qualifications  of 
the  applicant. 

A  law  of  1876  empowered  the  Territorial  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  to  grant  honorary  certificates  of  qualification  to  teachers 
of  proper  learning  and  ability  and  to  regulate  the  grade  of  county 
certificates.  These  '^ honorary  certificates"  were  granted  primarily 
on  the  basis  of  continuous  years  of  service.    Forty  were  given  between 


SKETCH    OF   THE   HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION    IN    WYOMING.  15 

1883  and  1887.  At  tlie  same  time  the  county  superintendents  were 
empowered  to  grant  certificates  for  two-year  periods.  During  the 
next  10  years  little  change  was  made  in  the  matter  of  certification. 
In  1897-98  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction  recom- 
mended that  graduates  of  the  university,  especially  those  having 
taken  normal  training,  receive  certificates  without  further  examina- 
tion.    This  change  was  made  soon  after. 

State  hoard  of  examiners. — In  1899  the  State  board  of  examiners 
was  created.  Their  duty  was  to  prepare  uniform  examination  ques- 
tions and  to  serve  as  a  court  of  appeal  from  the  decisions  of  the 
county  superintendents.  During  the  first  year,  under  the  presidency 
of  Prof.  C.  B.  Ridgaway,  of  the  university,  16  sets  of  questions  were 
prepared  for  the  use  of  the  county  superintendents.  The  board  also 
examined  33  applicants  for  certificates,  recommended  16,  and  declined 
to  recommend  17.  Many  of  the  applicants  who  were  not  favorably 
recommended  were  unable  to  comply  with  the  requirement  of  ability 
to  teach  aU  of  the  subjects  usually  taught  in  high  schools  of  the  State. 
Under  this  system  many  third-grade  certificates  (vahd  for  one  year), 
and  a  fair  number  of  second-grade  certificates  (valid  for  three  years) , 
were  issued.     Practically  no  first-grade  certificates  were  issued. 

In  1899  provision  was  made  for  issuing  three  grades  of  certificates 
and  a  professional  or  State  certificate,  the  latter  to  be  granted  by 
the  board  of  examiners.  Examinations  for  the  other  three  grades 
of  certificates  were  still  conducted  by  the  county  superintendents  in 
subjects  prescribed  by  law. 

In  1907  the  board  was  empowered  to  examine  aU  candidates  for 
certificates  in  the  State.  Examinations  were  conducted  at  stated 
intervals  and  the  recipients  of  certificates  were  allowed  to  teach  in 
any  county  of  the  State.  In  1909  the  subjects  for  examination  in 
the  three  classes  were  more  specifically  fixed  by  law. 

Teachers'  institutes. — The  education  act  of  1873  required  the  Terri- 
torial superintendent  of  public  instruction  to  conduct  annually  a 
teachers'  institute  lasting  not  less  than  4  nor  more  than  10  days. 
Its  chief  function  was  the  selection  of  textbooks.  In  1883  an 
appropriation  of  $1,500  was  made  to  pay  the  traveling  expenses  of 
teachers  attending  institutes.  Four  years  later  the  attendance  of 
teachers  was  required  by  law;  they  were,  however,  to  receive  com- 
pensation for  transportation.  Provision  was  further  made  for  the 
payment  by  the  counties  of  expenses  incidental  to  the  holding  of 
institutes,  including  the  compensation  of  lecturers.  The  legislature 
of  1913  authorized  the  holding  of  joint  institutes  by  two  or  more 
counties.  The  outcome  of  this  was  the  act  of  1915  providing  for 
State  institutes.  These  were  to  be  maintained  in  part  by  nominal 
fees  required  of  all  teachers  in  the  State.  The  State  superintendent's 
biennial  report  for  1907-8  noted  the  tendency  to  make  the  county 


16  ^      EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF   WYOMING. 

institutes  a  mere  series  of  lectures.  This  has  since  been  generally 
overcome  by  close  attention  at  all  meetings  to  the  specific  needs  and 
problems  of  the  teachers  and  the  schools. 

High  schools. — The  laws  of  the  Territorial  assembly  provided  for 
high  schools,  buildings,  courses  of  study,  etc.,  all  to  be  determined 
by  the  county  superintendent  and  board  of  directors.  An  enact- 
ment of  the  State  legislature  in  1905  provided  for  the  creation  of 
special  high-school  districts  and  the  location  of  union  district  high- 
schools  at  specified  places.  In  1915  the  people  were  empowered  to 
lay  a  tax  not  exceeding  2  mills  on  the  dollar  for  the  payment  of 
teachers'  salaries  and  contingent  expenses  in  such  high  schools  and 
a  total  tax  not  exceeding  10  mills  on  the  dollar  in  case  of  the  con- 
struction of  a  building,  provided  such  high  schools  maintained  a  four- 
year  course  qualifying  for  admission  to  the  university. 

The  first  high  school  established  was  at  Cheyenne  in  1875.  This 
was  followed  by  one  at  Buffalo,  1881;  Newcastle,  1889;  RawHns, 
soon  after;  Lander,  1890;  and  Sheridan  in  1893. 

Kindergartens. — Kindergarten  instruction  began  in  private  schools. 
In  1886  Mrs.  F.  D.  M.  Bratten  established  the  Magic  City  Kinder- 
garten in  Cheyenne,  charging  a  tuition  fee  of  $4  a  month.  At  the 
end  of  the  first  year  she  had  10  pupils.  Subsequently  other  private 
kindergartens  were  opened  in  a  number  of  communities  in  the  State. 
In  1895,  however,  the  legislature  empowered  the  trustees  of  all 
school  districts  to  establish  free  kindergartens  for  children  between 
the  ages  of  4  and  6.  Such  schools  were  to  be  maintained  out  of  the 
special  school  fund,  and  only  graduates  of  approved  kindergarten 
training  schools  were  to  be  employed  as  teachers.  In  1903  the  State 
department  reported  182  children  attending  kindergartens. 

Private  education. — In  the  beginning  private  schools  exceeded  in 
importance  public  schools.  The  census  of  1870,  for  example, 
enumerated  4  public  schools  with  4  teachers  (2  men  and  2  women), 
while  it  listed  5  day  and  boarding  schools  with  11  teachers  (5  men 
and  6  women).  The  pubHc  schools  were  attended  by  175  pupils; 
the  private  schools  by  130.  The  former  had  an  inconie  of  $2,876, 
derived  from  taxation  and  pubhc  funds,  while  the  latter  had  an 
income  of  $5,500,  derived  from  tuition  fees  and  other  sources.  The 
greater  amount  of  income  in  addition  to  the  relatively  large  number 
of  teachers  and  small  number  of  pupils  probably  indicates  a  higher 
quality  of  educational  service  on  the  part  of  the  private  schools. 

With  improvement  in  the  standard  of  public  education,  the  pri- 
vate schools  became  for  a  period  less  significant.  One  of  the  few  to 
survive  for  a  time  was  the  Wyoming  Institute,  a  Baptist  school  at 
Laramie,  of  which  Rev.  D.  J.  Pierce,  A,  M.,  was  the  first  and  only 
principal.     It  closed  in  1873. 


l1|!|||Uk 


SKETCH    OF   THE   HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION   IN   WYOMING.  17 

The  educational  traditions  of  Laramie,  however,  were  maintained 
by  St.  Mary's  School,  a  Eoman  Catholic  institution,  organized  as  far 
back  as  1870,  but  not  apparently  making  much  headway  till  after  a 
decade.  By  the  year  1881  it  had  4  teachers  (women)  and  73  pupils. 
In  1885  it  was  moved  to  Cheyenne.  In  1890  there  were  8  teachers 
and  60  pupils;  in  1910,  13  teachers  and  170  pupils;  in  1915-16,  14 
teachers  and  210  pupils. 

Another  private  institution  was  the  Wyoming  CoUegiate  Institute, 
at  Big  Horn,  a  Congregational  school  started  in  1894-95  with  2  men 
and  1  woman  teacher  and  an  enrollment  of  34  boys  and  22  girls. 
The  previous  year,  however,  1893,  Sheridan  Public  High  School  had 
been  started.  The  Wyoming  Collegiate  Institute  decHned  and  was 
soon  closed. 

In  1905  the  Cheyenne  Business  College  in  Cheyenne  was  opened 
and,  in  the  same  year.  Big  Horn  CoUege,  in  Basin.  The  latter 
enterprise  was  financed  by  a  number  of  prominent  citizens  of  Big 
Horn.     Its  scope  included  commerce,  music,  and  academic  subjects. 

In  1909  Jireh  College  was  founded  at  Jireh,  Niobrara  County, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Christian  Church.  This  institution  offers 
courses  in  secondary  subjects  and  some  instruction  of  college  grade. 

The  following  table  shows  the  enroUment  in  the  private  schools  of 
the  State  since  1903: 

Year.  Pupils. 

1903 260   , 

1905 259 

1910 350 

1914 262 

TJie  university. — Since  1878  the  governor  and  commissioner  of  edu- 
cation had  expressed  the  behef  that  the  Territory  needed  a  university 
and  a  normal  school.  On  the  6th  of  September  of  1887  a  Territorial 
university  was  opened,  and  four  years  later  provision  was  made  for 
adequate  normal  instruction.  In  1892  the  university  undertook  to 
grant  the  degree  of  B.  D.  (Bachelor  of  Didactics)  on  completion  of  the 
normal  course  of  two  years  beyond  the  grammar  grades  and  the 
degree  of  L.  I.  (Licentiate  of  Instruction)  on  the  completion  of  an 
additional  year  of  graduate  work.  Prof.  Henry  Merz  was  the  first 
principal  of  the  normal  school. 

The  university  proper  opened  with  a  faculty  of  seven,  including 
the  president,  ex-Gov.  Hoyt.  The  first  department  organized  was 
the  college  of  liberal  arts,  the  acknowledged  nucleus  of  all  university 
departments.  A  preparatory  department  was  immediately  added 
and  preparations  were  made  for  aU.  the  schools  essential  to  a  State 
university.  The  two  departments  immediately  organized  thereafter 
were  a  school  of  mines  and  a  school  of  agriculture,  although  the 
57460°— 17 2 


18  EDUCATION-AL   SUEVEY   OF   WYOMING. 

catalogue  of  1890-91  announced  also  a  department  of  law  and  a 
school  of  commerce.  The  coUege  of  agriculture  was  reorganized  in 
1891  and  the  division  of  mining  the  next  year. 

When  Wyoming  was  admitted  to  the  Union  the  constitutional 
convention  made  provision  for  the  university.  The  first  State  legis- 
lature, which  convened  in  Cheyenne,  November  12,  1890,  also  passed 
an  act  to  estabUsh  the  Wyoming  agricultural  college,  its  location  to 
be  fixed  by  vote  of  the  people,  and  created  and  named  a  board  of  five 
trustees  to  control  this  institution.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the 
legislature  authorized  the  University  of  Wyoming  at  Laramie  to 
accept  the  Federal  appropriations  for  the  support  of  agricultural 
colleges  until  such  time  as  the  agricultural  coUege  of  Wyoming  should 
be  located  and  estabhshed.  Thus  an  agricultural  college  was  created 
at  Laramie.  In  1892  the  question  of  the  location  of  the  agricultural 
college  of  Wyoming  was  submitted  to  the  people,  and  by  a  plurahty 
vote  Lander  was  selected.  No  legislative  enactment  in  conformity 
with  this  vote  ensued,  however,  and  accordingly  the  agricultural  coUege 
remained  at  Laramie.  In  1905  the  legislature  definitely  fixed  it  at 
that  place,  repeahng  the  act  of  1891  and  ignoring  the  popular  vote  of 
1892.  Thereupon  the  trustees  of  the  ''Agricultural  College  of 
Wyoming"  brought  suit  against  the  treasurer  of  the  State  of  Wyoming 
to  prevent  the  -  execution  of  this  act.  The  case  was  idtimately 
appealed  to  the  Federal  Supreme  Court,  which  decided,  May  13, 1907, 
that  the  popular  vote  of  1892  was  purely  advisory  and  that  the 
agricultural  college  should  remain  at  Laramie  in  conformity  with  the 
legislative  act  of  1905. 

In  1891  the  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  was 
estabhshed  at  Laramie  and  substations  were  located  at  Lander, 
Saratoga,  Sheridan,  Simdance,  and  Wheatland.  The  substations 
were  abohshed  in  1897,  in  accordance  with  a  ruhng  of  the  Federal 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  catalogue  of  1891-92  announced  provision  for  university 
extension  whereby  the  whole  State  might  share  in  the  benefits  of  the 
institution,  instead  of  those  only  who  were  so  fortmiate  as  to  attend 
it  in  residence.  Steps  in  this  direction  had  already  been  taken  by 
President  Hoyt.  Local  extension  ''centers"  were  organized  at 
Cheyenne  with  65  members  and  at  Laramie  with  45  members  and  the 
Wyoming  University  extension  association  was  formed.  The  follow- 
ing year  another  "center"  was  added  at  Rock  Springs,  with  14 
members.  The  same  year,  also,  a  beginning  of  instruction  by 
correspondence  was  made. 

By  1893-94  the  matter  of  preparation  for  the  imiversity  was  being 

more  adequately  handled  by  local  high  schools  and  a  fist  of  such 

accredited  schools  was  compiled  whose  graduates  might  enter  the 

university  without  further  examination.     The  fist,  at  this  date,  com- 


SKETCH   OF   THE   HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION    IN    WYOMING.  19 

prised  Cheyenne,  Evanston,  Lander,  Laramie,  Rawlins,  Rock  Springs, 
and  Sheridan. 

In  1896-97  the  college  of  agriculture  was  reorganized  with  a  one- 
year  course,  a  two-year  course,  and  a  four-year  course.  The  last  led 
to  a  degree  and  was  supplemented  by  a  graduate  department  in 
agriculture. 

The  following  table  shows  the  enrollment  in  all  the  departments  of 
the  university  by  five-year  periods  from  1890  to  1916 : 

Year.  Enrollment. 

1890 82 

1895 110 

1900 187 

1905 221 

1910 315 

1916 ^573 

Finance. — The  act  of  March,  1886,  creating  the  university  provided 
for  its  maintenance  by  a  tax  of  one-fourth  of  1  mill  on  all  taxable 
property  in  the  Territory.  The  first  State  legislature  in  1891  under- 
took to  offset  the  support  granted  by  the  agricultural  college  of  the 
university  under  the  land  grant  act  of  1862,  the  Morrill  Act  and 
Hatch  Act — ^whose  terms  were  now  compHed  with — by  reducing  the 
State  appropriations  from  one-fourth  to  one-eighth  of  a  miU.  This 
remained  the  source  of  State  support  until  1905,  when  the  rate  was 
raised  by  the  legislature  to  three-eighths  of  a  miU  and  by  the  legislature 
of  1909  to  one-half  of  a  miU  (but  hmited  to  $33,000  annually).  In 
1911  the  amount  was  Hmited  to  $85,000.  The  legislature  of  1913 
fixed  the  tax  at  three-eighths  of  a  miU,  but  without  Hmitation.  In 
1915  an  additional  permanent  building  tax  of  one-eighth  of  a  mill  was 
voted.  In  addition  to  the  income  from  Federal  acts  already  noted, 
the  agricultural  college  of  the  imiversity  and  the  agricultural  experi- 
ment station  have  received  appropriations  from  the  Adams  Act  of 
1906,  the  Nelson  Act  of  1907,  and  the  Smith-Lever  Act  of  1915.  By 
an  act  of  the  Wyoming  Legislature  in  1915,  the  university  is  to 
receive  one-fourth  of  the  income  of  200,000  acres  of  Federal  land 
granted  to  the  State  for  '^charitable,  educational,  penal,  and  reforma- 
tory institutions." 

Buildings. — The  first  building  erected  was  the  liberal  arts  building, 
costing  over  $85,000,  for  which  site  and  campus  were  in  part  donated 
by  the  city  of  Laramie  and  in  part  purchased  from  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad.  Since  then  the  mechanical  engineering  building,  HaU  of 
Science,  gymnasium  and  armory,  heating  plant,  Woman's  HaU, 
normal  school  building,  and  buildings  for  the  agricultural  college  and 
experiment  station  have  been  erected  at  a  total  cost  of  $222,000. 
The  grounds  have  been  added  to  also  by  purchase  and  donation  from 

1  Includes  enrollment  in  all  departments,  including  the  summer  school.    See  p.  25. 


20 


EDUCATIONAL   SUKVEY   OF   WYOMING. 


the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  and  by  the  addition  of  the  old  peniten- 
tiary plant. 

Miscellaneous. — Soon  after  the  organization  of  the  Territory  some 
attempt  was  made  to  provide  vocational  education  for  the  Indians. 
In  1870  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  maintained  among  the  Sho- 
shones  an  Indian  school  with  10  pupils.  A  few  years  later  the  school 
dwindled  to  6  and  in  the  year  1874  was  abandoned.     In  1878  a  day 


1870-7/ 

1879-80 

1899-1900 

1909-1910 

1912-13 

1914 

21400 
21000 

^^ — 

20000 

/ 

19000 

/ 

18000 

17000 

16000 

/ 

15000 

/ 
/ 
/ 

14000 

/ 

13000 

/ 

12000 

/ 
/ 

IIOOO 

/ 

10000 

1 

9000 

/ 

8000 

/ 
/ 

7000 

/ 
/ 
/ 

6000 

/ 

5000 

/ 
/ 

4000 

/ 

3000 

/ 

2000 

/ 

1000 

' 

500 
2,50 

Fig.  1.— Increase  in  average  daily  attendance,  Wyoming  schools,  1870-1914. 

school  was  established.  More  recently  the  task  of  educating  the 
Indians  has  been  undertaken  seriously  both  by  the  churches  and  by 
the  Federal  Government. 

The  Territorial  assembly  in  1886  appropriated  $8,000  to  defray  the 
expense  of  establishing  a  school  for  the  blind  and  deaf  for  two  years, 
not  to  be  opened  until  there  were  12  applicants  for  admission.  The 
commission  created  imder  the  act  purchased  a  block  of  land  and 


SKETCH   OF   THE   HISTORY   OP   EDUCATION   IN   WYOMING.  21 

a  building  in  Cheyenne  for  this  purpose,  but  the  school  has  never 
been  opened. 

An  act  of  the  legislature  in  1907  created  the  Wyoming  Home  of  the 
Feeble-Minded  and  Epileptic,  subsequently  called  the  Wyoming 
School  for  Defectives,  at  Lander.  The  attendance  in  June,  1912, 
was  3,  but  by  the  end  of  the  year  it  had  increased  to  22.  On  Janu- 
ary 1,  1916,  there  were  36  males  and  22  females  at  the  institution. 
The  Wyoming  Industrial  Institute  was  established  at  Worland  in  1913 
and  opened  in  1915. 

One  of  the  purposes  of  the  Wyonaing  University  Extension  Asso- 
ciation, established  1891,  was  the  organization  of  a  State  teachers' 
association.  A  step  in  this  direction  was  taken  by  the  publication 
for  a  time  of  the  Wyoming  School  Journal,  edited  by  Prof.  Henry  Merz, 
of  the  university.  Meetings  of  the  State  teachers'  association  were 
held  in  Laramie,  1891;  Cheyenne,  1892;  Rawlins,  1893;  Rock 
Springs,  1894;  Evanston,  1895;  and  Laramie,  1897.  The  associa- 
tion, however,  was  already  moribund  and  within  five  years  succumbed. 
The  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction  in  1902  reported 
Wyoming  as  the  only  State  without  a  teachers'  association.  Two 
years  later  (1904)  a  new  State  teachers'  association  was  organized  at  a 
meeting  of  State  educators  in  Casper.  The  association  was  formed 
in  September,  and  in  December  appeared  the  first  numbers  of  the  new 
Wyoming  School  Journal,  which  is  a  monthly  publication.  The  State 
teachers'  association  has  met  annually  since  its  reorganization  in  1904. 


THE    PRESENT   SYSTEM. 

The  present  school  system  of  the  State  of  Wyoming  may  be  out- 
lined briefly  as  follows : 

There  is  a  State  department  of  education  composed  of  a  State 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  elected  every  four  years  by 
popular  vote,  assisted  by  a  deputy  State  superintendent,  and  an 
office  force  of  three  clerks  appointed  by  the  State  superintendent. 
The  State  superintendent  is  ex  officio  a  member  of  the  board  of  trustees 
of  the  State  university,  of  the  State  board  of  charities  and  reforms, 
and  of  the  State  land  board.  From  one-third  to  one-half  the  time 
of  the  State  superintendent,  deputy,  and  office  force  is  required  to 
perform  the  duties  of  these  boards.  There  is  no  State  board  of 
education. 

State  superintendent. — The  powers  and  duties  conferred  by  law 
upon  the  State  superintendent  are  as  follows:  He  shall  collect  and 
file  all  papers,  reports,  and  public  documents  transmitted  to  him  by 
the  school  officers  in  the  several  counties  each  year,  and  keep  a  record 
of  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  business  of  his  office.     Upon  these 


22    '  EDUCATIOKAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMIKG. 

matters  he  shall  report  biennially  to  the  governor.  He  shall  apportion 
State  school  funds  to  the  counties  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  law, 
prepare  the  State  course  of  study,  appoint  the  State  board  of  exam- 
iners, and  issue  certificates  on  their  reconmaendation,  file  and  publish 
price  lists  of  textbooks  of  publishers  complying  with  the  requirements 
of  the  law  which  make  them  eligible  to  do  business  in  the  State,  and 
make  such  other  rules  and  regulations  as  may  be  necessary  to  carry 
the  law  into  effect  according  to  its  spirit  and  intent.  In  addition,  he 
shall  have  ''general  supervision  of  all  the  district  schools  of  the  State 
and  see  that  the  school  system  is  put  into  uniform  operation  as  early 
as  practicable."  No  means  of  putting  this  system  into  operation  is 
provided,  and  the  law  is  therefore  a  dead  letter.  No  State  superin- 
tendent has  ever  made  any  serious  attempt  to  assume  actual  super- 
vision of  the  school  system.  The  powers  and  duties  are  general  and 
indefinite  and  give  the  State  superintendent  little  authority  in  the 
educational  development  of  the  State.  The  present  superintendent 
has  been  very  active  during  her  term  of  office  in  getting  in  touch  with 
the  schools  in  all  parts  of  the  State  through  personal  visits  and  various 
forms  of  communication. 

County  superintendent — Supervision  of  all  schools,  except  those  in 
cities  employing  special  superintendents,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  county 
superintendents,  who  are  elected  for  two-year  terms  by  popular  vote. 
In  order  to  be  eligible  for  election,  candidates  must  have  first-class 
teachers'  certificates.  These  are  issued  to  persons  who  pass  exam- 
inations in  elementary  school  subjects  and  the  following:  Elementary 
algebra,  English  and  American  literature,  elementary  psychology, 
physical  geography,  and  two  other  subjects  selected  from  a  list  of 
those  ordinarily  taught  in  high-school  courses.  One  year  of  teaching 
experience  is  required.  Salaries  of  superintendents  in  the  State  range 
from  $500  to  $900  per  year;  the  average  is  $710.  Of  the  21  superin- 
tendents, 18  are  women.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  county 
superintendents  as  conferred  upon  them  by  law  are  not  such  as  to 
make  them  important  factors  in  the  schools.  The  county  superin- 
tendent is  required  to  collect  school  statistics  and  report  to  the  State 
superintendent;  to  distribute  reports  and  circulars  from  the  State 
department;  to  apportion  the  county  funds  to  the  various  school 
districts  as  prescribed  by  law;  to  serve  with  the  county  civil  com- 
missioners as  a  district  boundary  board  to  fix  or  change  boundaries, 
consolidate  or  divide  districts,  and  form  new  districts ;  to  hold  teachers' 
institutes  of  from  four  to  eight  days  in  length  each  year;  to  visit  each 
school  once  a  year;  and  to  have  general  supervision  over  the  schools 
of  the  county.  The  latter  provision  in  practice  means  very  little. 
In  addition,  the  superintendent  is  legally  empowered  to  recommend 
for  dismissal  all  teachers  who   are  incompetent.     Boards   are  not 


SKETCH   OF   THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION  IN   WYOMING.  23 

required  to  comply  with  the  recommendation,  and  the  power  is 
rarely  used. 

The  district — The  State  is  divided  into  365  school  districts,  con- 
taining 1,150  schools,  taught  by  1,533  teachers.  Seven  of  these 
districts  are  city  districts  having  a  population  of  2,500  or  over,  em- 
ploying superintendents  who  devote  their  whole  time  to  supervision. 
Many  of  the  rural  districts  are  large  and  employ  a  number  of  teachers ; 
one  district  in  Laramie  County,  for  example,  contains  27  schools,  all 
of  which  are  one-teacher  rural  schools.  Each  district  is  under  the 
administration  of  a  local  board  of  three  persons  elected  for  three  years, 
the  term  of  one  of  whom  expires  each  year.  In  districts  of  1,000 
population  or  over  the  board  may  be  increased  to  six.  The  directors 
have  practically  unlimited  power  to  maintain  the  kind  of  schools  they 
wish  in  their  district  with  but  little  interference  from  higher  author- 
ity. They  are  legally  required  to  employ  teachers  certified  by  the 
State  superintendent,  to  follow  the  course  of  study,  and  to  maintain 
a  minimum  term  of  120  days.  No  special  provision  is  made  to 
enforce  these  laws,  however,  and  in  many  instances  they  are  not 
complied  with.     There  are  no  county  boards  of  education. 

Attendance  in  school  is  compulsory  for  all  children  between  the 
ages  of  7  and  14  during  the  entire  time  the  school  is  in  session.  Dis- 
tricts with  2,500  population  may  appoint  special  truant  officers;  in 
other  districts  tlie  county  sheriff,  deputies,  and  constables  are 
assigned  the  duty  of  enforcing  the  compulsory  attendance  law.  They 
may  investigate  cases  of  absence  from  school  on  their  own  knowledge 
or  on  the  complaint  of  any  resident  or  teacher  in  the  county.  The 
term  varies  in  length  throughout  the  State  from  40  days  to  220  days, 
the  average  being  163  days. 

Support. — Schools  are  supported  by  funds  from  three  sources — the 
State,  the  county,  and  the  district.  The  State  fund  for  1915  amounted 
to  approximately  $334,110;  the  county  funds  to  approximately 
$438,509;  and  the  district  funds  to  approximately  $547,606. 
The  annual  State  school  fund  is  composed  of  the  income  from  the 
sale  and  rent  of  State  school  lands  and  interest  on  State  permanent 
school  funds.  By  constitutional  provision  this  fund  is  distributed  to 
the  counties  in  the  State  on  the  basis  of  the  total  number  of  children 
from  6  to  21  years  old.  The  fund  is  reapportioned  in  the  counties 
by  the  county  superintendents  to  the  various  districts  on  the  same 
basis.  The  State  fund  is  increasing  rapidly,  and  in  1915  amounted  to 
$8.39  per  capita  of  school  population  6  to  21  years. 

The  county  fund  is  composed  of  a  $2  poll  tax  imposed  on  all  persons 
21  to  50  years  of  age,  fines  and  forfeitures,  and  a  tax  on  all  taxable 
property  in  the  county  levied  annually  by  the  county  commissioners 
''in  an  amount  sufficient  to  raise  $300  for  each  teacher,  but  not  to 


24  EDUCATIONAL   SUKVEY   OF   WYOMING. 

exceed  3  mills/'  THe  county  tax,  with  the  exception  of  the  poll  tax, 
is  distributed  to  the  districts  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  teachers 
employed;  the  polls  are  returned  to  the  districts  m  which  raised. 

Local  funds  are  levied  only  on  vote  of  the  taxpayers  of  the  school 
districts,  the  maximum  levy  being  8  J  mills.  Some  districts  raise  no 
local  funds,  maintaining  such  schools  as  are  possible  entirely  from  the 
money  received  from  the  State  and  county.  The  local  tax  when  voted 
by  taxpayers  is  collected  by  the  county  treasurer  and  paid  over  to  the 
treasurer  of  the  local  district.  Each  board  may  audit  its  treasurer's 
account,  or  a  district  may  vote  an  audit.  There  is  no  other  way  to 
secure  an  audit.  Bonds  for  building  purposes  may  be  issued  upon  a 
majority  vote  of  the  taxpayers  of  the  district,  but  the  amount  must 
not  exceed  2  per  cent  of  the  valuation  of  the  taxable  property  of  the 
district. 

Certification. — Certificates  are  issued  by  the  State  superintendent 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  State  board  of  examiners.  This  board 
is  composed  of  three  persons  engaged  in  school  work  in  the  State,  ap- 
pointed by  the  State  superintendent.  They  formulate  questions,  exam- 
ine and  correct  papers,  and  pass  on  credentials  of  such  applicants  as  are 
legally  entitled  to  certificates  because  of  graduation  from  preparatory 
institutions  of  specified  standing.  The  examinations  are  held  in  the 
different  counties  and  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  county  super- 
intendents. Temporary  certificates  may  be  issued  by  the  State 
superintendent,  but  are  legally  valid  only  until  the  first  regular 
examination  held  after  they  are  issued.  In  practice,  many  teachers 
are  employed  who  hold  only  temporary  certificates.  Salaries  of 
teachers  vary  throughout  the  State  from  $42  to  $145  per  month;  the 
average  is  $82  for  men,  $58  for  women. 

High  schools. — High  schools  may  be  established  in  any  district  in 
the  State  or  in  special  ' 'high-school  districts,"  composed  of  ''any 
number  of  present  organized  and  constituted  districts."  Such  high 
schools  are  administered  by  special  boards  of  trustees,  each  composed 
of  six  persons  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  high-school  district.  They 
are  supported  by  local  taxes  on  all  taxable  property  in  the  high-school 
district,  the  amount  of  which  taxation  is  determined  by  the  board  of 
trustees.  A  limit  of  2  mills  for  teachers'  salaries  and  contingent 
expenses  is  fixed  by  law.  High  schools  receive  a  per  capita  appor- 
tionment from  the  State  funds  and  $300  per  teacher  from  the  county 
funds.  There  are  26  schools  in  the  State  of  secondary  grade,  giving 
four-year  courses,  and  22  giving  from  one  to  three  year  courses. 

Higher  education. — The  State  university  is  located  at  Laramie, 
Albany  County,  and  includes  among  its  departments  the  liberal  arts 
college,  the  State  college  of  agriculture,  the  college  of  engineering, 
the  college  of  education,  and  the  State  normal  school.     The  summary 


SKETCH  OF   THE   HISTOEY  OF  EDUCATION  IN"  WYOMING.  25 

of  registration  for  tlie  year  1915-16,  as  reported  in  the  university 
catalogue  issued  April,  1916,  is  given  below: 

STUDENTS   IN   RESIDENCE. 

In  graduate  standing 14 

Seniors 23 

Juniors 40 

Sophomores 58 

Freshmen 77 

Special 58 

270 

University  high  school 43 

Music  (not  taking  other  subjects) 25 

Short  course 11 

Summer  school  of  1915 270 

349 

619 
Less  names  counted  more  than  once 46 

573 

EXTENSION. 

Correspondence  study  department „ 155 

Extension  center  students  (Cheyenne) : 

English  (Shakespeare) 10 

Pedagogical  principles 13 

Mechanical  drawing 20 

Shop  arithmetic 24 

67 
Less  names  counted  more  than  once 3 

Total 46 

Teacher  training. — The  State  maintains  but  one  institution  for  the 
professional  training  of  teachers — the  normal  school  and  college  of 
education  of  the  State  university.  In  practice  this  is  an  integral  part 
of  the  university.  The  normal  school  pupils  take  all  work  except 
professional  courses  with  the  freshman  and  sophomore  students  of 
other  departments  of  the  university.  Fifty  students  residing  within 
the  State  were  registered  in  the  department  of  education  in  June, 
1916.  They  were  from  the  following  counties:  Albany  County,  22; 
Big  Horn,  4;  Laramie,  4;  Converse,  3;  Crook,  3;  Lincohi,  3;  Niobrara, 
2;  Platte,  2;  Sheridan  2;  Weston,  Sweetwater,  Park,  Hot  Springs,  and 
Fremont,  each  1 ;  total  50.  There  were  7  students  from  other  States. 
These  57  are  included  in  the  enrollment  of  270  given  above. 


26  EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OF   WYOMING. 

Table  3. — Data  relative  to  Wyoming  public  schools,  1914-15. 


Counties. 


Area 
(square 
miles). 


Total 
popu- 
lation 
6  to  21. 


Districts. 


School 
buildings. 


Teachers 

em- 
ployed. 


Children 
enrolled. 


Total 
expendi- 
ture. 


Cost  per 
pupil  per 
month. 


Albany 

Big  Horn... 
Campbell.. . 

Carbon 

Converse 

Crook 

Fremont 

Goshen 

Hot  Springs. 

Johnson 

Laramie 

Lincoln 

Natrona 

Niobrara 

Park 

Platte 

Sheridan 

Sweetwater. 

Uinta 

Washakie... 
Weston 


4,436 
3,185 
4,774 
8,016 
4,176 
2,871 

12, 198 
2,225 
2,018 
4,158 
2,704 
8,974 
5,356 
2,612 
5,248 
2,117 
2,522 

10,522 
2,074 
2,265 
3,054 


2,049 
2,401 

576 
2,093 

945 
1,778 
1,839 
1,336 

675 
1,011 
4,147 
4,321 
1,197 
1,045 
1,477 
1,581 
4,101 
2,867 
1,866 

523 
1,328 


133 

74 
38 
80 
44 
116 
87 
84 
35 
44 
174 
129 
54 
48 
57 
112 
119 
66 
59 
26 
54 


1,452 
1,819 

436 
1,641 

663 
1,368 
1,501 
1,008 

569 

692 
3,005 
3,431 
1,178 

733 
1,247 
1,462 
3,035 
2,359 
1,683 

463 
1.098 


$86, 152 
68,495 
21,481 
71,457 
29,915 
45,959 
60,238 
37,938 
23,371 
33, 894 

156,025 

122,502 
92,712 
31,317 
52,245 
88,224 

138,090 
74, 101 
87, 694 
16,705 
44.262 


$8.02 
5.67 
4.12 
6.52 
6.61 
7.64 
5.92 
4.92 
6.52 
6.85 
9.49 
5.59 
9.43 
4.46 

12.37 

14.48 
5.76 
6.46 
6.91 
9.00 

13.00 


Total 197,914 


39, 156 


365 


1,633 


30,816 


,382,777 


1  Includes  Yellowstone  Park,  3,054  square  miles. 


II.  EDUCATION  IN  THE  STATE. 

Education  in  the  State  will  be  treated  as  a  matter  affecting 
the  State  as  a  whole.  It  is  not  the  function  of  the  legislature 
to  consider  the  efficiency  of  individual  schools,  but  to  provide  ma- 
chinery which  will  make  it  possible  that  such  educational  advantages 
as  the  State  desires  to  furnish  to  its  children  shall  be  available  to 
every  boy  and  girl  in  the  State.  Clearly  some  communities  will 
always  be  more  law-abiding  and  more  progressive  than  others,  de- 
pending on  individual  ideals  and  community  initiative.  But  clearly 
also  the  State  must  furnish  legal  machinery  such  that  every  com- 
munity will  have  the  possibility  of  being  as  orderly  and  law-abiding 
as  the  most  progressive.  It  must  also  assume  certain  responsibili- 
ties that  tend  toward  forcing  the  most  unprogressive  to  reach  definite 
minimum  standards  for  law  and  order  set  up  by  the  State  govern- 
ment as  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  life  and  property.  The 
State  has  a  similar  responsibility  in  providing  for  the  education  of 
its  children.  It  should  provide  a  minimum  standard  for  all 
counties  and  should  then  initiate  such  steps  as  are  necessary  to 
enforce  this  provision.  It  should  also  encourage  progress  and 
stimulate  such  local  effort  as  the  intelligence  and  progressive  spirit 
of  different  communities  warrant. 

The  constitution  of  Wyoming  asserts  that  the  'legislature  shall  pro- 
vide for  a  complete  and  uniform  system  of  public  education,  and  shall 
make  such  provision  by  taxation  or  otherwise  as  to  create  and  main- 
tain a  thorough  and  efficient  system  of  pubHc  schools  adequate  to 
the  proper  instruction  of  all  the  youth  of  the  State."  That  this  may 
be  complied  with,  the  State  must  from  time  to  time  revise  and  adjust 
existing  provisions  according  to  changing  conditions  and  growing 
needs.  Such  an  adjustment  necessitates  a  careful  study  of  the 
educational  situation  in  order  that  the  provisions  made  may  be 
exactly  suited  to  educational  needs.  The  study  of  the  status  of 
education  in  the  State  which  follows  is  made  in  compliance  with  an 
act  of  the  legislature  previously  explained,  and  represents,  therefore, 
an  effort  on  the  part  of  the  State  of  its  own  school  system  to  make  the 
kind  of  study  indicated.  Tlie  inquiry  as  made  is  not  a  criticism;  it 
is  merely  a  study  of  the  system  of  education  in  the  State  as  a  whole. 
Its  purpose  is  to  set  forth  facts  as  they  are,  in  order  that  such  recom- 
mendations as  are  made  may  be  based  on  actual  needs  and  conditions 
and  not  on  opinion  or  theory. 

27 


28  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF   WYOMIKO. 

The  efficiency  of  a  school  system  may  be  judged  by  the  results  it 
achieves  and  by  the  way  in  which  certain  well-defined  and  estab- 
lished principles  or  standards  in  administration  and  management  are 
adhered  to.  There  must  be  included  in  any  inquiry  concerning  it 
the  various  factors  which  make  up  the  complete  whole  and  which 
influence  directly  or  indirectly  the  results  obtained.  These  factors 
will  be  treated  under  the  following  heads :  Buildings  and  equipment, 
enrollment  and  attendance,  teaching  corps,  instruction,  supervision, 
revenue  and  support. 

School  records  and  reports. — ^The  statistics  used  in  this  report  to 
the  school  code  conmaittee  have  been  obtained  through  question- 
naires sent  to  the  various  school  officers,  through  personal  visits  and 
interviews,  and  from  the  reports  of  the  State  superintendents,  county 
superintendents,  coimty  treasurers,  the  State  examiner,  the  United 
States  census,  and  annual  reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education. 

Practically  all  data  necessary  for  a  careful  investigation  into  school 
attendance  should  be  contained  in  the  records  of  the  State  and  county 
education  departments  and  should  be  available  always.  Other  in- 
formation of  any  nature  concerning  schools  should  be  procurable 
from  school  officers  on  the  request  of  the  State  department  or  other 
legally  constituted  authority,  such  for  example  as  the  Wyoming 
school  code  committee.  While  the  investigators  felt  justified  in  ex- 
pecting to  obtain  all  necessary  information  in  the  manner  thus 
described,  unfortimately  it  has  been  impossible  to  do  so.  Of  the 
1,600  teachers  to  whom  questionnaires  were  sent  for  information 
relative  to  their  education,  training,  and  experience,  about  two- 
thirds  replied.  Replies  were  received  from  59  per  cent  of  the  1,000 
questionnaires  sent  out  regarding  buildings,  while  only  20  per  cent 
of  the  school  directors  replied  to  the  questionnaire  concerning  school 
expenditures.  Of  21  county  superintendents,  16  replied  to  one 
questionnaire  sent  out  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  for  the  school 
code  conunittee.  To  another  questionnaire  sent  to  county  superin- 
tendents directly  from  the  State  department  in  November  only  one 
reply  was  received  up  to  April  1,  when  all  data  were  expected  in  the 
Bureau  of  Education.  In  this  latter  case,  as  in  the  case  of  replies 
from  school  directors,  the  data  obtained  must  be  omitted,  since  the 
repHes  were  too  few  to  be  representative.  One  county  superintendent 
in  the  State  failed  to  return  to  the  State  department  any  of  the  infor- 
mation requested  regarding  buildings  and  teaching  qualifications. 
This  county  has,  therefore,  of  necessity  been  omitted  from  the  tables 
concerning  these  particular  items. 

This  indicates  a  serious  condition.  The  State  superintendent 
should  have  authority  to  demand  necessary  reports  on  school  con- 
ditions and  power  to  withhold  State  fimds  if  they  are  not  received. 
Otherwise  it  follows  that  only  the  best  qualified  school  officers  will 


EDUCATION   IN   THE   STATE.  29 

reply,  since  they  are  most  apt  to  be  prompted  by  courtesy  to  do  so. 
Reports  most  needed,  namely,  those  from  officers  least  qualified  and 
from  districts  in  which  the  school  situation  is  particularly  bad,  will 
usually  be  missing,  and  conditions  most  needing  investigation  thereby 
escape  it.  The  first  requisite  in  an  organized  system,  either  State  or 
county,  is  the  authority  to  demand  all  necessary  information  con- 
cerning schools.  Refusal  on  the  part  of  any  school  officer  to  comply 
with  such  legal  demand  should  be  followed  by  forfeiture  of  an  adequate 
bond  or  of  the  position  held  by  the  officer  refusing. 

BUILDINGS   AND   EQUIPMENT. 

The  problem  of  economic,  convenient,  and  sanitary  housing  of 
schools  in  Wyoming  is  imique  and  difficult.  The  population  is 
sparse  and  scattered,  and  schools  must  be  relatively  numerous,  far 
apart,  and  small  in  membership  in  many  cases  for  some  years  to  come. 
In  addition,  the  school  population  is  shifting.  Complaints  in  regard 
to  bad  housing,  inconvenient  location,  and  lack  of  necessary  equip- 
ment have  been  received  in  large  numbers  by  the  school  code  com- 
mittee. From  these  and  from  the  investigation  it  seems  apparent 
that  the  important  matters  of  location,  buildings,  and  equipment — 
closely  related  to  the  physical,  moral,  and  esthetic  welfare  of  school 
children — ^have  hardly  received  the  serious  consideration  which  their 
importance  justifies. 

All  children  should  have  an  opportunity  for  an  education  at  public 
expense  in  schoolhouses  reasonably  accessible  to  their  homes  and  in 
buildings  which  insure  at  least  convenience,  comfort,  and  healthful 
conditions.  One  need  not  travel  far  in  Wyoming  to  find  school- 
houses  of  the  best  and  of  the  worst  possible  types.  The  greatest  need 
seems  to  be  that  the  State  or  county  should  adopt  some  settled  and 
economical  policy  of  schoolhouse  construction  which  will  provide 
measures  of  general  improvement  for  present  conditions  and  certain 
minimum  standards  for  the  future. 

Distribution. — Schoolhouses  should  be  so  located  that  at  least  an  ele- 
mentary school  may  be  within  walking  or  riding  distance  (probably 
not  to  exceed  6  miles)  of  every  child  of  school  age.  County  superin- 
tendents and  others  report  that  there  are  now  many  children  living 
so  far  from  any  schoolhouse  that  they  are  deprived  of  opportunity 
for  education.  Letters  in  the  hands  of  the  school  code  committee 
show  that  in  some  cases  children  as  old  as  14  years  have  attended 
school  a  few  months  oiHy.  One  report  cites  the  case  of  a  school- 
house  which  is  located  on  one  side  of  the  river  (where  the  majority 
of  the  voters  reside),  while  practically  all  the  children  of  school  age 
in  the  district  live  on  the  other  side.  When  it  is  necessary  to  cross 
the  river  by  bridge,  many  children  must  walk  from  3  to  6  miles  to 
reach  the  schoolhouse.     On  the  other  hand,  city  superintendents 


30 


EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OF   WYOMING. 


complain  that  many  unnecessary  country  schools  are  maintained  on 
account  of  the  present  system  of  distributing  county  money  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  teachers  and  that  some  famihes  are  sup- 
plied with  what  practically  amounts  to  a  private  governess  and 
maid  at  pubhc  expense.  Plainly,  some  of  the  schools  now  existing 
should  be  abandoned  and  others  established  where  there  are  none. 

Sanitary  requirements. — It  is  evident  that  a  satisfactory  system 
of  schools  will  provide  comfortable  and  sanitary  housing  and  such 
equipment  as  good  work  necessitates.  Appropriateness  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  intended,  convenience,  and  beauty  are  other  important 
considerations.  The  schoolhouse  and  grounds  should  represent  all 
that  the  intelligence,  good  taste,  and  financial  ability  of  the  com- 
mimity  warrant.  Recent  investigations  of  the  health  of  rural 
children  and  the  comparisons  made  of  health  conditions  in  rural 
and  city  districts  have  aroused  throughout  the  country  a  new 
interest  in  rural  school  buildings  and  equipment  and  their  relation 
to  the  health  of  children.  Results  show  that  country  children  are 
not  as  healthy  and  have  more  physical  defects  than  children  of  the 
cities,  even  including  the  children  of  the  slums.  The  accompanying 
graph  indicates  a  few  of  the  conditions  revealed  by  these  investiga- 
tions : 


Defective  teeth. 


Enlarged  tonsils . 


Eye  defects. 


Ear  defects. 


Spinal  curvature. 


Mental  defects. 


•49.9  per  cent. 


■16.4  per  cent. 


-30  per  cent. 


■8.8  per  cent. 


-21.5  per  cent. 


-  -  -5.1  per  cent. 

——4.8  per  cent. 
- 1  per  cent. 

^^3.5  per  cent. 
-1.3  per  cent. 

—0.8  per  cent. 
-0.2  per  cent. 


Rural 
City 


According  to  a  pamphlet  recently  distributed  by  the  Bureau  of 
Education: 

Healthful  and  attractive  rural  schools  are  absolutely  essential  to  the  physical, 
mental,  social,  economic,  and  moral  well-being  of  the  nation  as  a  whole.  Country 
school  children  should  have  as  sanitary  and  attractive  schools  and  as  intelligent  and 
effective  health  care  as  school  children  in  the  cities. 


EDUCATION   IN   THE    STATE.  31 

This  pamphlet  proposes  the  following  minimum  health  require- 
ments for  rural  schools : 

The  one-teacher  country  school  should  contain  in  addition  to  the  classroom: 

(a)  A  small  entrance  hall,  not  less  than  6  by  8  feet. 

(6)  A  small  retiring  room,  not  less  than  8  by  10  feet,  to  be  used  as  an  emergency 
room  in  case  of  illness  or  accident,  for  a  teacher's  conference  room,  for  school  library, 
and  for  health  inspection,  a  feature  now  being  added  to  the  work  of  the  rural  school. 

(c)  A  small  room,  not  less  than  8  by  10  feet,  for  a  workshop,  for  instruction  in  cooking, 
and  for  the  preparation  of  refreshments  when  the  school  is  used,  as  it  should  be,  for 
social  purposes. 

Classroom  should  not  be  less  than  30  feet  long,  20  feet  wide,  and  12  feet  high.  This 
will  provide  space  enough  for  a  maximum  of  30  pupils. 

VENTILATION  AND   HEATING. 

The  schoolroom  should  always  receive  fresh  air  coming  directly  from  out  of  doors 
in  one  of  the  following  arrangements: 

(a)  Through  wide  open  windows  in  mild  weather. 

(6)  Through  window  board  ventilators  under  all  other  conditions,  except  when, 
with  furnace  or  jacketed  stove,  special  and  adequate  inlets  and  exits  for  air  are  pro- 
vided. 

Heating. — ^Unless  furnace  or  some  other  basement  system  of  heating  is  installed,  at 
least  a  properly  jacketed  stove  is  required.  (No  unjacketed  stove  should  be  tolerated 
in  any  school.) 

The  jacketed  stove  should  have  a  direct  fresh-air  inlet  about  12  inches  square, 
opening  through  the  wall  of  the  schoolhouse  into  the  jacket  against  the  middle  or 
hottest  part  of  the.  stove. 

The  exit  for  foul  air  should  be  through  an  opening  at  least  16  inches  square  on  the 
wall  near  the  floor  on  the  same  side  of  the  room  as  the  stove  is  located. 

A  fireplace  with  flue  adjoining  the  stove  chimney  makes  a  good  exit  for  bad  air.^ 

Temperature. — Every  school  should  have  a  thermometer,  and  the  temperature  in 
cold  weather  should  be  kept  between  66°  and  68°  F. 

LIGHTING. 

The  schoolroom  should  receive  an  abundance  of  light,  sufficient  for  darkest  days, 
with  all  parts  of  the  room  adequately  illuminated. 

The  area  of  glass  in  windows  should  be  from  one-fifth  to  one-fourth  of  the  floor  area. 

The  best  arrangement,  according  to  present  ideas,  is  to  have  the  light  come  only 
from  the  left  side  of  the  pupils  and  from  the  long  wall  of  the  classroom.  Windows 
may  be  allowed  on  rear  as  well  as  on  the  left  side,  but  the  sills  of  windows  in  the  rear 
of  the  room  should  be  not  less  than  7  feet  above  the  floor.  High  windows  not  less  than 
7  feet  from  the  floor  may  be  permitted  on  the  right  side  if  thoroughly  shaded  as  an 
aid  to  cross  ventilation,  but  not  for  lighting. 

There  should  be  no  trees  or  shrubbery  near  the  schoolhouse  which  will  interfere 
with  the  lighting  and  natural  ventilation  of  the  classroom. 

The  school  building  should  so  face  that  the  schoolroom  will  receive  the  direct 
sunlight  at  some  time  during  the  day.  The  main  windows  of  the  schoolroom  should 
not  face  either  directly  north  or  south.     East  or  west  facing  is  desirable. 

Shades  should  be  provided  at  tops  and  bottoms  of  windows  with  translucent  shades 
at  top,  so  that  Light  may  be  properly  controlled  on  bright  days. 

1  The  following  arrangement  for  ventilating  flue  is  required  in  one  Western  State:  A  circular  sheet  steel 
smoke  flue,  passing  up  in  center  of  ventilating  shaft  (foul  air  exit)  20  inches  square  in  the  clear. 


32  EDUCATIOITAL  SURVEY  OF   WYOMING. 

Schoolroom  colors. — The  best  colors  for  the  schoolroom  in  relation  to  lighting  are: 
Ceiling. — White  or  light  cream. 
Walls. — Light  gray  or  light  green. 
Blackboards. — Black,  but  not  glossy. 

CLEANLINESS. 

The  schoolhouse  and  surroundings  should  be  kept  as  clean  as  a  good  housekeeper 
keeps  her  home, 
(a)  No  dry  sweeping  or  dry  dusting  should  be  allowed. 

(6)  Floors  and  furniture  should  be  cleaned  with  damp  sweepers  and  oily  cloths, 
(c)  Scrubbing,  sunning,  and  airing  are  better  than  any  form  of  fumigation. 

DRINKING   WATER. 

Drinking  water  should  be  available  for  every  pupil  at  any  time  of  day  which  does  not 
interfere  with  the  school  i)rogram. 

Every  rural  school  should  have  a  sanitary  drinking  fountain  located  just  inside  or 
outside  the  schoolhouse  entrance. 

Drinking  water  should  come  from  a  safe  source.  Its  purity  should  be  certified  by 
an  examination  by  the  State  board  of  health  or  by  some  other  equally  reliable 
authority. 

A  common  drinking  cup  is  always  dangerous  and  should  never  be  tolerated. 

Individual  drinking  cups  are  theoretically  and  in  some  conditions  all  right,  but 
practical  experience  has  proved  that  in  schools  individual  cups,  to  be  used  more  than 
once,  are  unsatisfactory  and  unhygienic.  Therefore,  they  are  not  to  be  advocated 
nor  approved  for  any  school. 

Sufficient  pressure  for  running  water  for  drinking  fountain  or  other  uses  in  the  rural 
school  may  always  be  provided  from  any  source  without  excessive  expense  by  a  storage 
tank  or  by  pressure  tank  with  force  pump; 

WATER  FOR   WASHING. 

Children  in  all  schools  should  have  facihties  for  washing  hands  available  at  least: 
(a)  Always  after  the  use  of  the  toilet. 
(6)  Always  before  eating. 

(c)  Frequently  after  playing  outdoors,  writing  on  blackboard,  or  doing  other  forms 
of  handwork  connected  with  the  school. 
Individual  clean  towels  should  always  be  used. 
Paper  towels  are  the  cheapest  and  most  practicable. 
The  common  towel  is  as  dangerous  to  health  as  the  common  drinking  cup. 

FURNITURE. 

School  seats  and  desks  should  be  hygienic  in  type  and  adjusted  at  least  twice  a, 
year  to  the  size  and  needs  of  growing  children.  Seats  and  desks  should  be  individual, 
separate,  adjustable,  clean. 

Books  and  other  materials  of  instruction  should  not  only  be  sanitary,  but  at- 
tractive enough  to  stimulate  a  wholesome  response  from  the  pupils. 

TOILETS   AND  PRIVIES. 

Toilets  and  privies  should  be  sanitary  in  location,  construction,  and  in  main- 
tenance. 

(a)  If  water  carriage  system  for  sewage  is  available,  separate  toilets  for  boys  and  girls 
should  be  located  in  the  schoolhouse,  with  separate  entrances  on  different  sides  or 
corners  of  the  school  building. 


^^^^1^1  .^H 

I 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


BULLETIN,  1916,  NO.  29     PLATE  5, 


DISTRICT  NO.  5,   HOT  SPRINGS  COUNTY. 


il 

EMERSON  SCHOOL,  DISTRICT  NO.  17,  FREMONT  COUNTY. 


EDUCATION   IN   THE   STATE.  33 

(6)  If  there  is  no  water  carriage  system,  separate  privies  should  be  located  at  least 
50  feet  in  the  different  directions  from  the  schoolhouse,  with  the  entrances  well 
screened. 

(c)  The  privy  should  be  rainproof,  well  ventilated,  and  one  of  the  following  types: 

1.  Dry-earth  closet. 

2.  Septic-tank  container. 

3.  With  a  water-tight  vault  or  box. 

All  containers  of  excreta  should  be  water-tight,  thoroughly  screened  against  insects, 
and  easily  cleaned  at  frequent  intervals. 

No  cesspool  should  be  used  unless  it  is  water-tight  and  easily  emptied  and  cleaned. 

All  excreta  should  be  either  burned,  buried,  treated  by  subsoil  drainage,  reduced  by 
septic -tank  treatment,  or  properly  distributed  on  tilled  land  as  fertilizer. 

All  schoolhouses  and  privies  should  be  thoroughly  and  effectively  screened  against 
flies  and  mosquitoes. 

Schoolhouses  and  outhouses  should  be  absolutely  free  from  all  defacing  and 
obscene  marks. 

Buildings  should  be  kept  in  good  repair  and  with  whole  windows. 

The  tables  which  follow  this  section  give  a  general  idea  of  how 
Wyoming  lives  up  to  these  minimum  requirements  in  rural  com- 
munities. The  statistics  include  all  school  buildings,  rural  and 
urban,  and  therefore  show  a  higher  average  than  if  rural  schools  alone 
were  included.  Table  4,  which  gives  detailed  data  by  counties, 
shows  that  many  buildings  are  in  bad  condition  inside  and  out. 
The  exact  percentage  of  districts  having  such  buildings  varies  from 
8  per  cent  of  those  reporting  in  one  county  to  66  per  cent  in  another. 
A  few  excerpts  from  reports  received  by  the  code  committee  will 
show  that  these  defects  are  often  very  serious  ones: 

1.  Outside  finish,  mud;  inside  finish,  mud;  ventilation,  door  only, 

2.  Papered  with  newspapers;  floors,  poor. 

3.  Floor,  rough;  no  paint,  not  ceiled  overhead. 

4.  Inside  finish,  poor;  large  cracks  in  floor;  plaster  off  the  ceiling. 

5.  Cracked  walls,  uneven  floor,  ill-fitting  windows. 

6.  Stove  smokes,  ventilated  by  cracks  and  broken  window  glass. 

7.  Building  25  years  old,  log,  in  wretched  repair,  stucco  falling  out,  an  abandoned 
cabin. 

8.  Cracks  in  walls,  stuffed  with  rags. 

9.  Poor  outside  and  inside;  finished  in  rough  logs  and  ventilated  by  cracks;  no 
shades  no  ventilation,  no  outbuildings. 

10.  Schoolhouse  in  pasture,  no  fence,  stock  use  house  as  windbreak. 

Heating  and  lighting. — Over  73  per  cent  of  the  schools  reporting 
are  heated  by  ordinary  stoves,  about  10  per  cent  with  jacketed 
stoves,  and  the  others  by  furnace  or  steam.  Steam-heated  buildings 
and  those  provided  with  ventilating  systems  are  confined  to  towns 
and  cities.  Windows  are  the  only  means  of  ventilating  in  78  per 
cent  of  all  the  school  buildings.  At  least  three  counties  report  all 
of  their  schools  ventilated  by  windows  only.  This  means  that  foul 
air  is  breathed  by  the  children  the  greater  part  of  the  day,  unless 
the  teacher  is  trained  in  schoolroom  ventilation  and  is  unusually 
57460°— 17 3 


34  EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OF    WYOMING. 

careful.  Jacketed  stoves  with  ventilating  attachments  in  country 
schools  mean  reasonable  comfort  for  the  children,  while  rooms 
heated  by  unjacketed  stoves  are  almost  sure  to  be  uncomfortably 
warm  for  those  near  the  stove,  and  cold  for  those  in  the  remote 
corners  of  the  room.  In  the  counties  reporting,  the  number  of 
buildings  heated  mth  jacketed  stoves  varies  from  0  to  15  per  cent  of 
the  total.  Relatively  few  of  the  rural  schools  in  the  State  are  properly 
lighted.  The  country  schoolhouses  are  usually  of  the  box-car  variety 
with  windows  on  both  sides  or  on  three  sides.  Insufficient  or  cross 
lighting  is  reported  in  61  per  cent  of  the  schools  of  the  State. 

Equipment. — ^The  reports  received  indicate  that  the  majority 
of  rural  schools  in  the  State  have  little  equipment.  Every  school 
should  not  only  be  supplied  with  cloakrooms,  worlo-ooms,  adjustable 
desks,  and  the  like,  but  with  a  liberal  number  of  books  for  reference 
and  supplementary  reading,  globes,  maps,  dictionaries,  etc.  These 
need  not  be  expensive,  but  they  should  be  carefully  selected  by 
those  familiar  with  school  work.  Money  should  not  be  spent  on 
useless  material.  One  county  reports  only  10  per  cent  of  schools 
supphed  with  books  other  than  the  basic  texts,  and  40  per  cent  of 
the  schools  in  the  State  as  a  whole  report  similarly. 

Sites  and  grounds. — The  question  of  convenience  of  access  is  so  im- 
portant in  deciding  the  location  of  schoolhouses  that  appropriateness 
in  other  respects  must  sometimes  be  lost  sight  of.  The  schoolhouse 
should  be  located  in  as  healthful  a  place  as  exists  in  the  community. 
The  yard  should  always  be  weU  drained.  In  a  few  instances  school 
grounds  are  reported  as  constantly  flooded  with  waste  water  from  irri- 
gation. Very  few  reports  indicate  that  any  consideration  what- 
ever was  given  to  drainage  and  soil  in  the  selection  of  the  school 
site.  The  reports  show  that  very  little  attention  is  given  to 
beautifying  the  school  groimds  in  the  rural  districts  and  that  there 
are  practically  no  yards  suitable  or  equipped  for  play  except  in  cities 
and  consolidated  schools.  The  feeling  is  aU  too  common  in  rural 
communities  that  country  children  have  little  need  of  play — that 
their  out-of-door  life  and  the  healthful  conditions  which  usually  pre- 
vail in  the  country  compensate  for  the  lack  of  recreation.  This  is, 
of  course,  a  mistaken  view.  Playground  room  and  simple  equipment 
are  not  luxuries,  but  necessities. 

Water  supply. — ^The  water  supply  is  a  serious  problem  from  the 
point  of  view  of  health  and  cleanliness.  The  table  appended  shows 
four  counties  in  which  none  of  the  schools  reporting  have  water  on 
the  school  grounds ;  relatively  few  of  the  schools  in  the  State  (23  per 
cent)  have  water  on  the  school  grounds.  In  many  cases  the  reports 
show  that  the  teacher  or  children  carry  water  for  drinking  long  dis- 
tances, often  in  open  pails  left  uncovered  throughout  the  day.     Drink- 


EDUCATION    IN    THE    STATE.  36 

ing  water  for  children  is  so  intimately  related  to  their  health 
that  it  deserves  special  attention.  Lack  of  water,  polluted  water 
supply,  insanitary  arrangements  for  keeping  water  and  for  drinking 
it  are  fruitful  sources  of  disease.  There  should  be  sanitary  foun- 
tains on  the  school  grounds  where  possible ;  but  individual  drinking 
cups,  if  kept  clean  and  free  from  dust  and  germs,  or  paper  cups — 
which  are  not  costly — are  also  sanitary  and  satisfactory  if  the  water 
is  kept  in  covered  jars.  Some  counties  report  no  sanitary  fountains 
or  individual  drinking  cups  in  use.  In  the  State  as  a  whole  about  9 
per  cent  of  the  schools  use  sanitary  fountains  and  41  per  cent  indi- 
vidual drinking  cups.  Apparently  little  care  is  taken  to  see  that 
the  cups  are  kept  clean  and  the  water  is  rarely  kept  in  covered 
receptacles.  Not  only  should  drinking  water  be  available  at  all 
times,  but  water  for  washing  and  individual  towels  should  also  be 
furnished,  and  water  for  keeping  the  schoolhouse  scrubbed  and  cleaned 
in  order  that  it  may  be  as  sanitary  and  as  wholesome  as  the  best  home 
in  the  community.  Children  should  be  taught  hygiene  and  sanitation 
through  example  as  well  as  precept.  The  difficulty  of  a  satisfactory 
solution  of  this  problem  is  fully  realized.  Wells  can  not  always  be 
provided  on  the  school  grounds,  nor  water  piped  there.  Some 
arrangement  for  carrying  it  in  large  quantities  and  for  properly 
storing  it  will  be  necessary  in  many  cases.  The  important  thing  is 
that  the  matter  of  water  supply  be  considered  in  the  selection  of  a 
school  site,  and  that  some  sanitary  and  adequate  provision  be  made 
in  the  future  before  schoolhouses  are  definitely  located.  A  competent 
administrative  authority  should  have  power  to  inspect  and  condemn 
sites  and  grounds  as  well  as  buildings  when  insanitary  conditions 
prevail  w^hich  can  not  be  remedied. 

Outbuildings. — The  necessity  of  such  supervisory  control  is  still 
more  apparent  from  an  examination  of  reports  concerning  toilets. 
Some  districts  provide  no  toilets  at  all;  in  others  one  toilet  is  used 
by  boys  and  girls  and  teacher.  In  many  cases  where  two  are  sup- 
plied, they  are,  according  to  one  local  investigator,  ''dens  of  filth 
and  neglect;  they  are  not  scrubbed,  and  pits  are  not  cleaned  or  disin- 
fected. Often  the  pits  are  full  to  overfiow^ing,  and  often  there  are 
no  doors."  Over  50  per  cent  of  the  total  number  reporting  from  the 
State  were  reported  as  poor  or  in  need  of  repairs;  4  per  cent  of  the 
schools  reported  definitely  that  they  had  no  outbuildings ;  and  28  per 
cent  have  but  one.  It  need  scarcely  be  added  that  such  a  condition 
needs  immediate  attention  and  is  ample  evidence  of  the  need  of  an 
inspecting  and  supervisory  control  of  buildings  and  grounds. 

To  summarize :  It  is  very  important  that  means  be  provided  to 
insure  adequate  and  sanitary  buildings  located  on  accessible  and 
healthful  sites  where  pure  water  can  be  had.     Buildings,  grounds, 


36 


EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OF    WYOMING 


and  outbuildings  should  be  inspected  and  supervised  by  competent 
authorities  and  existing  conditions  remedied  without  unnecessary 
delay. 

Report  of  school  building  survey. 


Total  number  of  school  buildings  In  State 

Total  number  of  building  reports  received 

Number  of  school  buildings  built  after  1900  and  reported  new . 
Number  built  before  1900  and  reported  old 


Number  not  reporting  on  this  item . 
Material  in  buildings: 

Brick  or  stone 

Log  or  sod 

Frame 


Number  not  reporting  on  this  item . 
Inside  finish  of  buildings: 

Good 


Poor 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  item . 
Outside  finish  of  buildings: 

Good 


Poor 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  item 

Lighting: 

Side  or  rear  lighting  (good) 

Insufficient  or  cross  lighting  (unsatisfactory) . 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  item 

Heating: 

Steam  or  furnace 


Unjacketed  stove. 
Jacketed  stove . 


Both  a  jacketed  and  an  unjacketed  stove. 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  item 

Ventilation: 

Windows  only  means  supplied 

Special  provision 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  item 

Kind  of  desks: 


Single . 


Double 

Double  and  single  reported 

No  desks  furnished 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  item . 

Adjustable 

Stationary 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  item . 
Buildings  equipped  with: 


Charts . 

None 

Dictionaries 

None 

Supplementary  books. 

None 

Shades . 


None 

Pictures 

None 

Sanitary  fountains 

Individual  cups — 

No  provision 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  item . 
Buildings  employing  janitor: 

Janitor  employed 

Teacher  acts  as  janitor 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  Item 

Buildings  reporting: 

Assembly  rooms 

G  vmnasmms 

Work  rooms 

Rest  or  cloak  rooms 

Fence: 

Yards  with  fence 

No  fence 

Irrigation: 

Irrigated 

Dry  or  not  reporting  on  this  Item 

Trees: 

Trees 

No  trees . 


Number. 


952 

557 

383 

80 

94 

63 
141 
331 

22 


316 
171 
70 

314 
146 
97 

143 

342 

72 

44 
406 
59 
25 
23 

438 
79 
40 

365 
109 

58 
7 

18 
223 
257 

77 

302 
255 


188 
232 
325 
199 
358 
214 
343 
50 


253 


30 


125 


183 
364 


54 
503 


71 
480 


*In  this  and  the  following  items,  percentages  are  based  on  the  number  reporting,  which  is 
of  the  whole. 


per  cent 


EDUCATfON    IN    THE   STATE. 
Report  of  school  building  survey — Continued 


a? 


Per  cent. 


Playground  equipment: 

Number  havmg  equipment 

Number  not  reporting  anv  equipment 

Toilets: 

One  only 

Two...' 

None 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  item 

Condition  of  toilets: 

Good 

Poor  or  in  need  of  repairs '.. 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  item 

Free  from  obscene  markings 

Connected  with  sewers ^ 

Water  source: 

Well 

Water  piped 

Carried  from  home,  springs,  or  river  by  pupils 

Number  not  reporting  on  this  item 


Outbuilding  report  from  one  county. 


Schools  reported 51 

One  outhouse  only 14 

Two 20 

None 4 

No  report  received 13 


Condition  of  repair: 

Good 17 

Poor 16 

Not  given 18 


Free  from  markings 32 

Not  free  from  markings 4 

No  report 15 


38 


EDUCATIONAL  SUKVEY  OF  WYOMING. 


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EDUCATION    IN    THE   STATE.  39 


ENROLLMENT   AND   ATTENDANCE. 


The  data  on  enrollment  and  attendance  liei-ein  submitted  are 
gathered  principally  from  reports  of  the  county  superintendents  to 
the  State  superintendent.  Unfortunately  these  reports  are  very 
incomplete,  and  do  not  contain  many  of  the  most  important  items 
concernmg  attendance.  To  illustrate:  Nearly  85  per  cent  of  the 
schools  of  Wyoming  are  one-teacher  schools.  In  some  cases  many 
of  them  are  included  in  one  district;  one  district  in  Laramie  County 
has  27.  The  county  superintendents'  reports  give  only  averages 
by  districts.  Averages  do  not  show  the  actual  conditions,  for  in 
single  districts  there  are  schools  in  session  a  short  term  only,  with 
teachers  paid  low  salaries  and  the  attendance  very  small,  while 
there  are  others  exactly  opposite  in  each  of  these  particulars.  The 
average  shows  conditions  somewhere  between  the  two,  or  something 
which  does  not  exist  at  all.  A  feature  of  the  superintendent's  report 
should  be  the  presentation  of  such  discrepancies.  Data  were  not 
obtainable  in  the  time  at  our  disposal  to  show  with  any  accuracy 
how  many  small,  short-term  schools  having  poorly  paid  teachers 
there  are  in  the  State,  or  in  how  many  schools  the  percentage  of 
attendance  is  very  low. 

Reliable  data  relative  to  the  percentage  of  enrollment  could  not 
be  obtamed  in  spite  of  the  importance  of  such  information.  An 
efficient  school  system  enrolls  all  children  of  actual  school  age  (ap- 
proximately 6  to  18  ^  3^ears  of  age,  if  high  schools  are  maintained),  and 
holds  them  in  school  until  they  have  finished  both  elementary  and 
high  schools.  However  effective  may  be  the  instruction  furnished, 
unless  the  childi*en  are  enrolled  and  attend  school  regularly  the 
result  is  unsatisfactory.  The  "census"  as  given  in  the  county 
superintendents'  reports  is  the  number  of  all  children  6  to  21  years 
of  age.  No  figm*es  are  available  to  shov/  the  number  of  children  of 
actual  school  age,  generally  6  to  18  ^  years.  Percentage  of  enrollment 
should  be  computed  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  actual  school  age 
and  the  actual  enrollment.  The  figures  given  for  actual  enrollment  in 
the  county  superintendents'  reports  are  evidently  not  reliable.  This  is 
due  to  the  lack  of  system  in  keeping  records  on  the  part  of  the  school 
district  trustees,  from  whom  the  county  superintendents  collect  the 
data.  According  to  the  county  superintendents'  reports  for  the 
year  1915,  78  per  cent  of  the  census  children  (6  to  21  years)  were  en- 
rolled in  school.  This  means  an  enrollment  equal  to  the  total  number 
of  children  of  actual  school  age  (6  to  18^  y^ars),  which  is,  of  course, 
not  probable.  The  United  States  Census  of  1910  reported  35,770 
childi'en  from  6  to  21  years  of  age  in  Wyoming,  with  64  per  cent 
enrolled  in  school.  This  is  probably  more  nearly  correct.  The  esti- 
mate made  by  the  bureau  is  given  in  the  appendix. 

'Inclusive. 


40 


EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OF   WYOMING. 


Other  important  data  not  available  in  State,  county,  or  district 
records  (except  in  a  few  districts)  are  these:  Percentage  of  eni'ollment 
in  average  daily  attendance;  number  of  eighth-grade  graduates; 
census  of  children  of  high-school  age  and  percentage  of  these  children 
enrolled  in  high  school;  census  of  children  of  high-school  ago  in  districts 
where  high  schools  are  not  available;  number  of  children  of  elementary 
school  age  not  attending  full  term  taught  in  the  district  as  specified 
by  the  compulsory  attendance  law;  and  age-grade  data.  All  of  these 
items  should  be  available  for  each  school  and  for  each  district,  and 
averages  by  counties  should  bo  made  only  when  needed  for  special 
purposes.  The  last  item — age-giade  data— doubtless  needs  a  little 
explanation.  Experience  proves  that  over-age  shortens  school  life. 
Especially  is  this  tiue  when  children  are  two  years  or  more  over- 
age; children  three  years  over-age  rarely  attend  school  beyond  the 
sixth  grade.  Information  concerning  age  grade  of  children  enrolled 
in  school  is,  therefore,  valuable  in  checking  up  the  efficiency  of  the 
school  system.  As  soon  as  a  more  centralized  county  system  is 
organized  and  a  reasonable  degree  of  uniformity  of  grading  is  assured, 
the  forms  filed  in  the  office  of  the  county  superintendent  should  con- 
tain information  concerning  the  number  of  children  in  every  grade, 
with  their  ages,  lists  of  promotions  by  grades,  and  information  as 
detailed  as  possible  concerning  children  who  leave  school  at  the  close 
of  the  compulsory  school  period. 

The  following  table  shows  the  census,  the  total  enrollmant,  the  high- 
school  enrollment,  and  the  number  between  7  and  14*  years  of  age 
not  enrolled  in  any  school: 

Table  5. — Census  and  enrollment ,  1914-15. 


Counties. 


Census 
(6-21). 


Enroll- 
ment. 


Per  cap- 
ita cost 

per 
month 
(aver- 
age).2 


Attend- 

ini? 

high 
school. 


Number 
between 
7  and  14 
years  of 
acie  not 
attending 
school. 


Albany 

Big  Horn... 
Campbell . . . 

Carbon 

Converse 

Crook 

Fremont 

Goshen 

Hot  Springs . 

Johnson 

Laramie 

Lincoln 

Natrona 

Niobrara 

Park 

Platte 

Sheridan 

Sweetwater . 

Unita 

Washake — 
Weston 


Total. 


2,049 
2,401 

576 
2,093 

945 
1,778 
1,839 
1,336 

675 
1,011 
4,147 
4,321 
1,197 
1,045 
1,477 
1,581 
4,101 
2,867 
1,866 

523 
1,328 


1,452 
1,819 

436 
1,641 

663 
1,358 
1,501 

984 

569 

692 
3,005 
3,431 
1, 176 

733 
1,247 
1,462 
3,035 
2,343 
1,683 

436 


$8.02 
5.67 
4.12 
6.  .52 
6.61 
7.64 
5.92 
4.92 
6.52 
6.85 
9.49 
5.59 
9.43 
4.46 

12.37 

14.48 
5.76 
6.46 
6.91 
9.00 

13.00 


180 

146 

28 

148 

89 

51 

161 

52 

45 

76 

366 

294 

131 

45 

157 

133 

343 

260 

89 

47 

72 


122 
CO 

9 
11 

4 

58 
119 
50 
17 
17 
65 
93 
23 
51 
41 

7 

5 
10 
29 
13 

5 


1  Inclusive. 


2  Based  on  enrollment. 


EDUCATION    FN   THE   STATE.  41 

These  figures  are  taken  from  the  county  superintendents^  reports 
and  show  that  809  children  between  7  and  14  years  of  age  are  not 
enrolled  in  any  school.  This  is  probably  a  low  estimate,  since,  as 
explained  above,  the  United  States  census  report  for  1910  shows 
a  much  larger  nimaber  than  the  State  superintendent's  report,  and 
the  present  method  of  estimating  information  for  school  purposes 
leaves  room  for  errors  and  omissions.  In  Albany  County  10  per  cent 
of  the  census  children  between  the  ages  of  7  and  14  years  are  not 
enrolled  in  school.  This  may  be  due  to  laxity  on  the  part  of  the 
attendance  officer,  or  it  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  some  children 
five  so  far  from  school  that  they  are  unable  to  attend. 

Though  there  are  no  available  data  to  show  what  percentage  of 
actual  school  population  is  enrolled  in  school  and  how  regularly  those 
enrolled  attend  school,  it  is,  however,  possible  to  obtain  from  the 
county  superintendents'  reports  the  average  number  of  days  attended 
by  each  pupil  enrolled  and  the  maximum  and  minimum  terms  by 
districts.  In  a  few  rural  districts  schools  are  maintained  but  two 
months,  in  others  three,  four,  or  five  months,  and  a  six  months'  term 
seems  to  be  relatively  prevalent.  Practically  all  cities  and  towns 
maintain  schools  nine  and  one-half  months.  Nine  months  (180  school 
days)  should  be  the  minimum  term  in  any  district.  The  variation 
indicates  that  gross  injustice  is  suffered  by  some  children,  since  they 
have  a  possibility  of  only  a  few  months  of  school  per  year.  It  also 
shows  the  inequality  of  opportunity  offered  under  the  existing  system 
of  school  management, 

A  similar  irregularity  and  consequent  injustice  is  shown  in  the 
average  number  of  days  attended.  Even  in  a  county  in  which  the 
minimum  length  of  term  is  six  months,  or  120  days,  the  average 
number  of  days  actually  attended  by  each  child  enrolled  is  but  89. 
Schools  in  this  county  are  evidently  not  holding  pupils  in  school 
during  the  full  term,  even  when  the  term  is  a  short  one,  and,  conse- 
quently, it  is  evident  that  the  attendance  law  is  not  being  enforced. 
The  school  term  should  be  increased  throughout  the  State  to  180 
days,  and  schools  should  be  so  respected  in  the  various  communities 
and  should  so  appeal  to  the  interests  of  the  children  that  aU  those 
enrolled  would  attend  regularly,  except  when  kept  away  because  of 
ifiness  or  other  unavoidable  reasons. 

Regularity  of  attendance  influences  the  cost  of  schooling.  Data 
available  do  not  show  the  cost  per  pupil  on  attendance  basis,  which 
really  represents  the  actual  cost.  The  per  capita  cost  on  enrollment 
basis,  which  now  varies  according  to  the  table  from  a  minimimi  of 
$4.12  per  month  in  Campbell  County  to  a  maximum  of  $14.50  in 
Platte  County,  is  much  lower  than  if  computed  on  an  attendance 
basis.     If  attendance  were  better  for  each  district,  the  actual  cost  per 


42  EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OF   WYOMING. 

district  would  be  no  greater  than  now,  the  per  capita  cost  smaller, 
and  the  educational  results  far  more  satisfactory. 

Summary. — ^The  reports  of  all  school  oificers  to  the  county  super- 
intendents and  State  superintendent  should  he  revised  to  include 
important  items  of  information  now  omitted.  A  follow-up  system 
should  be  in  force,  so  that  these  reports  may  be  filed  with  the  proper 
authorities  at  specified  times.  The  present  laxity  in  the  enforcement 
of  the  compulsory-attendance  law  should  be  remedied  and  better 
attendance  encouraged  by  State  and  county.^ 

Secondary  schools. — The  percentage  of  pupils  enrolled  (based  on 
total  census  children  of  high-school  age),  the  average  daily  attend- 
ance, the  number  of  teachers,  the  branches  taught,  and  other  impor- 
tant data  regarding  high  schools  could  not  be  obtained.  Except  for 
the  item  of  total  enrollment,  no  available  reports  give  separate  data 
for  high  schools  either  in  regard  to  census  and  attendance  or  number 
and  qualifications  of  teachers.  Although  two  different  attempts  were 
made  by  the  State  superintendent  to  obtain  information  from  47 
reported  high  schools  (State  superintendent's  annual  report)  in  the 
State,  only  17  replied — a  number  not  large  enough  to  be  represen- 
tative of  the  State  as  a  whole.  From  information  obtainable  from 
the  State  department,  State  university,  and  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education,  there  are  26  high  schools  giving  a  four-year  course  and 
21  others  giving  some  high-school  work  from  one  to  three  years. 

The  enrollment  in  all  but  a  few  of  these  is  very  small  and  the  num- 
ber of  teachers  small.  In  some  cases  four-y^^ar  high  schools  are  con- 
ducted by  one  teacher.  In  a  few  cases  rural  teachers  are  attempting 
to  teach  some  high-school  work  in  connection  with  their  regular 
elementary  classes.  Taking  time  for  this  is  unjust  to  the  elementary 
pupils  and  the  work  is  probably  of  little  value  to  those  taking  sec- 
ondary subjects. 

If  it  were  possible  to  ascertain  the  number  of  children  of  high- 
school  age  not  enrolled  in  any  high  school,  indications  are  that  it 
would  be  very  large.  The  city  of  Cheyenne,  with  a  total  enroll- 
ment of  1,909  (county  superintendent's  report,  1915),  enrolls  288 
pupils  in  the  high  school.  This  is  15  per  cent  of  the  total  district 
enrollment.  The  State  at  large,  with  a  total  enrollment  of  30,816, 
enrolls  2,912  in  high  schools,  onh^  9  per  cent  of  the  total  enrollment. 
This  estimate  includes  the  cities  of  Chej^onne,  Sheridan,  Laramie, 
and  others,  where  high-school  enrollment  is  relatively  large.  The 
indications  are,  therefore,  that  a  very  small  percentage,  probably 
not  more  than  5  or  6  per  cent  of  the  total  enrollment  in  rural  com- 
mimities,  is  in  high  schools.  Estimating  from  figures  in  the  report 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1911,  there  were  in  Wyoming, 

A,i  For  detailed  suggestions,  see  p.  91. 


EDUCATTOK   IN   THE   STATE.  43 

in  1910,  10,951  pupils  of  high-school  ago  (14-18^).  The  increase  in 
total  school  census  for  1915  over  1910  is  about  9  per  cent.  Using 
this  as  a  basis  of  estimate,  there  were  in  Wyoming  the  present  year 
11,937  children  of  high-school  age;  2,912  of  these  are  enrolled  in 
high  schools,  leaving  a  remainder  of  8,925  children  of  high-school 
age  not  enrolled  in  high  schools.  While  this,  of  course,  is  only  an 
estimate,  it  is  approximately  correct. 

So  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  vocational  subjects  in  the  Wyoming 
high  schools  receive  little  attention.  Here  and  there  attention  is 
given  to  fitting  boys  and  girls  for  a  place  in  industrial  life  and  an  effort 
made  to  give  some  kind  of  vocational  guidance,  but  no  systematic 
State-wide  effort  is  being  made  either  to  encourage  a  greater  number 
of  high  schools  or  to  assist  in  bringing  those  which  now  exist  nearer 
to  the  industrial  mterests  of  the  people.  More  high  schools  are 
needed,  and  they  should  be  located  in  such  a  way  as  to  serve  the 
largest  possible  number  of  children.  The  courses  of  study  need 
revision,  particularly  with  respect  to  vocational  training.  High 
schools  should  file  separate  reports  with  the  State  and  county  super- 
intendents. The  State  department  of  education  should  be  equipped 
to  have  general  supervision  over  the  high  schools  and  to  give  them 
advice  and  assistance. 

TEACHING    CORPS. 

The  most  important  consideration  in  the  efficiency  of  any  school 
is  the  teacher.  If  she  is  well  qualified  for  her  work,  trained,  ex- 
perienced, and  capable,  many  handicaps  can  be  overcome.  This  is 
especially  true  in  the  rural  schools.  As  the  teacher,  so  is  the  school. 
Few,  if  any,  interfere  with  her  sway.  She  makes  the  course  of  study, 
outlines  the  program,  selects  the  books,  often  without  restraint  or 
advice,  and  is  the  organizer  and  general  administrative  officer  of  the 
classroom.  These  responsibilities  demand  ability  of  a  high  order  and 
such  academic  and  professional  training  as  give  preparation  propor- 
tional to  the  importance  of  the  work  pursued.  It  occasionally  hap- 
pens that  teachers  are  ^^born;"  that  is,  one  of  unusual  native  ability 
becomes  a  successful  teacher  through  experience  rather  than  through 
special  preparation.  Probably,  however,  the  percentage  of  born 
teachers  is  as  small  as  the  percentage  of  born  doctors,  lawyers,  or 
ministers.  There  is  now  general  agreement  among  educators  and 
laymen  that  the  best  assurance  of  good  teaching  consists  in  adequate 
preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

The  training  of  the  teacher  is  usually  thought  of  as  made  up  of 
two  elements — general  or'  academic  education  and  special  or  profes- 
sional training.     In  addition,   a  study  of  the  qualifications  of  the 

1  Inclusive. 


44 


EDITOATIONAI.   BURVKV   OF   WYOMING. 


teaching  force  should  consider  such  professional  activities,  graduate 
study,  summer-school  attendance,  educational  reading,  etc.,  as  show 
a  progressive  attitude  and  a  professional  spirit.  Experience  is 
another  important  factor.  In  order  that  the  teaching  body  may 
be  a  homogeneous  group  with  certain  standard  qualifications,  most 
States  have  some  system  of  certification  by  which  the  teachers  are 
classified  according  to  educational  qualifications,  generally  measured 
by  (1)  examination  or  (2)  evidence  of  graduation  from  schools  of 
specified  class  and  standard.  The  teaching  force  of  Wyoming  has 
therefore  been  considered  (1)  as  to  certification,  (2)  as  to  general 
education,  (3)  as  to  professional  training  and  experience,  and  (4)  as 
to  professional  spirit  as  evidenced  in  the  manner  above  suggested. 

Certification. — The  State  of  Wyoming  recognizes  eight  different 
kinds  of  teaching  certificates,  obtainable  either  on  examination  or  on 
satisfactory  evidence  of  graduation  from  approved  schools.  Legally 
the  holders  of  higher-grade  certificates  have  no  advantage  in  appoint- 
ment or  salary  over  holders  of  lower-grade  certificates.  Briefly,  the 
qualifications  represented  by  both  forms  are  as  follows: 

Table  6. — Requirements  for  teaching  certificates. 


Class  of  certificates. 


Requirements  by  examination. 


Requirements  by  credentials. 


(1)  Third-grade  certiflcate 
(valid  one  year,  not  re- 
newable). 


(2)  Second-grade  certificate 
(valid  two  years;  renew- 
able for  two  years  by 
reading-circle  work). 

(3)  First-grade  certiflcate 
(valid  four  years,  renew- 
able for  four  years  by 
reading-circle  work). 

(4)  Professional  second-class 
(valid  for  life). 


(5)  Professional   first-class 
(vaUd  for  life). 


(6)  Diploma  certificate. 


(7)  Special  certificates 

(8)  Temporary  certificates. 


The  common  branches,  including  no  high- 
school  subjects,  but  including  agriculture, 
Wyoming  and  United  States  civics,  and  ob- 
taining an  average  of  70  per  cent;  no  subject 
lower  than  50. . 

Rhetoric  and  composition,  and  the  theory 
and  practice  of  teaching,  in  addition  to  ex- 
aminations required  for  third-class  certifi- 
cates. 

Algebra,  English,  and  American  literatui'e, 
elementary  j^sychology.  physical  geography, 
and  two  additional  high-school  subjects,  in 
addition  to  examinations  required  for  sec- 
ond-class certiflcate. 

School  management,  pedagogy,  methods,  and 
history  of  education,  the  subjects  required 
for  a  first-class  certificate,  and  two  addi- 
tional high-school  subjects. 

Issued  to  holders  of  professional  second-class 
certificates  on  passing  additional  examina- 
tions in  advanced  psychology  and  school 
supervision,  after  three  years'  successful 
teaching  experience. 


Graduation  from  a  four-year 
high  school. 


Graduation  from  a  four-year 
high  school,  with  18  weeks' 
additional  work  at  a  stand- 
ard normal  school. 

Graduation  from  a  four-year 
high  school  and  an  addi- 
tional full  year  at  a  stand- 
ard normal  school. 

Graduation  from  a  regular 
two-year    normal    school, 
with  one  year's  experience 
in  teaching. 
Graduation  from  the  college 
of  liberal  arts  of  the  State 
university  or  institution  of 
the    same   standing,    pro- 
vided one-fifth  of  thecourse 
piu-sucd  was  in  education, 
and  two  years'  successful 
experience  in  teaching. 
Issued  to  graduates  of  the  State  normal  school  or  the  State  university  and 
held  while  gaining  experience  required  for  the  above  professional  certifi- 
cates. 
Issued  to  primary,  kindergarten,  and  special  technical  teachers  upon  creden- 
tials or  examinations. 
Issued  to  persons  engaged  to  teach,  but  hold  no  certificate  in  force,  but  who 
have  at  some  time  held  a  teaching  certificate.    Requests  must  be  indorsed 
by  county  superintenden  ts  and  show  "  good  and  sufficient  reasons."    They 
are  good  legally  only  until  next  regular  examination. 


It  is  evident  that  the  two  requirements  for  the  same  certificate, 
one  by  examination  and  one  by  presentation  of  satisfactory  evidence 
of  graduation  from  specified  schools,  are  not  equivalent.  For 
instance,  the  lowest  certificate  (the  third-grade  certificate)  requires 


EDUCATION   IN   THE   STATE. 


45 


graduation  from  a  four-year  high  school,  if  obtained  by  credentials, 
but  it  may  be  obtained  on  examination  by  a  person  with  no  high- 
school  education.  The  first-grade  certificate  requires  graduation  from 
a  one-year  standard  normal  school  on  credentials,  but  it  may  be 
obtained  on  examination  by  high-school  graduates  who  have  studied 
outside  of  school  certain  professional  works  on  education.  In  fact,  a 
study  of  the  education  of  the  individual  teachers  now  holding  first- 
grade  certificates  shows  many  with  no  education  beyond  high  school, 
and  a  large  number  with  even  less  general  education. 

As  stated  in  a  previous  section,  all  kinds  of  certificates  are  issued 
by  the  State  superintendent  of  pubhc  instruction  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  State  board  of  examiners,  which  consists  of  three  members 
appointed  by  the  State  superintendent  of  pubhc  instruction  from 
among  high-school  principals,  city  and  county  superintendents  of  the 
State,  and  the  faculty  of  the  State  university.  This  sort  of  board 
was  undoubtedly  satisfactory  when  the  number  of  teachers  in  the 
State  was  much  fewer  than  at  present.  Now,  however,  that  the  work 
is  more  arduous,  it  is  difficult  to  find  education  officers  who  can  give 
enough  time  to  the  work  to  assure  promptness  in  correcting  exam- 
inations, passing  upon  credentials  of  education,  and  issuing  certifi- 
cates. Many  complaints  have  been  received  because  teachers  are 
required  to  wait  a  seemingly  unreasonable  time  for  their  certificates. 
Greater  satisfaction  would  undoubtedly  result  if  the  board  were 
abolished  and  a  division  of  certification,  with  a  permanent  chief, 
created  in  the  State  department  of  education. 

The  following  table  shows  the  kind  of  certificates  held  by  all  teachers 
in  the  State  at  the  end  of  the  school  year  1914-15,  as  taken  from  the 
records  of  the  county  superintendents,  and  those  hold  by  1,077 
teachers  at  work  in  the  fall  of  1915  as  reported  to  the  State  depart- 
ment on  the  special  inquiry  for  information  for  this  report.  It  is 
interestmg  to  note  that  while  there  were  10  per  cent  of  the  teachers 
without  regular  certificates  in  October  of  the  year  1915,  there  were 
only  2  per  cent  the  preceding  spring.  It  indicates  that  a  large 
number  of  teachers  holding  no  certificates  are  employed  each  faU  in 
the  expectation  that  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  securing  certificates 
later. 

Certificates  of  teachers  in  1914-15. 


Kinds  of  certificates. 


Spring  of 

Fall  of 

1915. 

1916. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

6.4 

7.4 

16.8 

20.2 

16.5 

13.4 

44.6 

32.5 

10.4 

11.2 

2.6 

1.7 

.0 

3.7 

2.3 

3.0 

.0 

6.9 

First  professional  certificates 

Second  professional  certificates 

First-grade  certificates 

Second-grade  certificates 

Third-grade  certificates 

Diploma  certificates 

Special  certificates 

Temporary  certificates 

Those  not  reporting  any  grade  of  certificate 


46  EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY    OF    WYOMING. 

The  figures  for  the  fall  of  1915  show  that  more  than  haK  of  the 
teachers  of  the  State  reporting  hold  either  second  or  third  grade 
certificates  or  none  at  all  and  10  per  cent  hold  temporary  certificates 
or  none.  The  first-grade  certificate,  held  by  13  per  cent  of  the 
teachers,  is  not  a  high  grade  of  certificate,  especially  when  obtained 
by  examination.  None  of  these  three  grades  of  certificate  when 
obtained  on  examination  necessarily  represents  any  professional 
training  worth  while.  Nearly  60  per  cent  of  the  total  nmnber  of 
certificates  issued  during  18  months  preceding  June,  1916,  were 
issued  on  examination.  Data  showing  the  exact  number  of  each 
grade  issued  in  this  way  are  not  available.  However,  of  the  40 
per  cent  issued  on  credentials,  a  large  number  were  given  on  high- 
school  diplomas  and  represent  no  professional  training.  Only 
29  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  teachers  now  in  the  State 
(diploma  and  first  and  second  professional  certificates)  hold  certifi- 
cates representing  worthy  attempts  toward  preparing  for  their  chosen 
profession,  and  this  29  per  cent  in  reality  should  be  reduced  by  the 
consideration  that  a  large  portion  of  them  were  obtained  by  ex- 
amination. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  professional  status  is  low.  It  can  be  raised 
by  legislation  requiring  of  all  teachers  after  a  certain  date,  say  1922, 
a  definite  amount  of  professional  training  as  a  prerequisite  for  any 
type  of  certificate.  This  plan  is  being  adopted  in  other  States, 
and  seems  to  be  necessary,  if  trained  teachers  are  to  be  secured. 

Another  point  relating  to  certificates  is  noteworthy  in  these  figures. 
Three  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  teachers  included  in  this 
report  (1,077)  hold  temporary  certificates,  and  7  per  cent  held,  at 
the  time  the  questionnaires  were  sent  out  in  October,  none  at  all. 
Taking  this  as  a  basis  of  computation,  it  would  appear  that  about  50 
teachers  in  the  State  hold  temporary  certificates  and  more  than  100 
none  at  all.  That  is,  approximately  150  teachers  (or  10  per  cent  of 
the  total)  were  teaching  in  the  month  of  October  holding  no  legal 
papers  authorizing  them  to  draw  their  salaries.  The  blame  for  this 
condition  must  be  distributed  among  three  classes  of  people,  namely, 
the  teachers  themselves,  those  who  employ  them,  and  the  State 
board  of  examiners.  To  remedy  this,  it  should  be  illegal,  as  it  is 
now  in  many  States,  for  any  teacher  or  any  employmg  board  or  officer 
to  enter  into  a  teaching  contract  until  the  teacher  holds  a  certificate. 

A  very  interesting  fact  imcovered  by  this  investigation  is  the  sur- 
prising variation  among  counties  as  to  the  grades  of  certificates 
held  by  teachers.  The  county  reporting  the  highest  percentage 
of  life  certificates  is  Natrona,  the  percentage  bemg  41.8.  The  one 
showing  the  lowest  percentage  (Campbell)  reports  no  teachers  hold- 
ing life  certificates.     Thus  we  have  a  variation  in  the  number  of  life 


EDUCATION    IN    THE   STATE.  47 

certificatos  ranging  from  0  in  one  county  to  41 .8  per  cent  in  unother. 
Likewise  the  variation  in  third-grade  certificates  (the  lowest  class  of 
certificate)  runs  from  0  in  Washakie  to  25  per  cent  in  Campbell. 
Similarly  the  average  number  of  years  of  professional  training  varies 
from  two-tenths  of  a  year  in  Campbell  to  1.9  years  in  Hot  Springs 
County.  No  teachers  holding  degrees  are  reported  in  Big  Horn, 
Crook,  Niobrara,  and  Hot  Springs,  while  Laramie  County,  containing 
the  city  of  Cheyenne,  excels  on  this  point. 

Variation  in  grades  of  certificates  among  counties. 

Per  cent. 

Largest  percentage  of  life  certificates,  Natrona  County 41.  8 

Smallest  percentage  of  life  certificates,  Campbell  County 0.  0 

Largest  percentage  of  third -grade  certificates,  Campbell  County 25. 0 

Smallest  percentage  of  third -grade  certificates,  Washakie  County 0. 0 

What  is  the  cause  of  this  rather  striking  variation  ?  Professional 
schools  for  teachers  as  at  present  conducted  do  not  prepare  for 
rural-school  work ;  hence  trained  teachers  gravitate  to  the  city.  But 
the  matter  must  also  be  traced  largely  to  those  who  select  teachers. 
In  the  four  or  five  largest  tow^ns  or  cities  in  Wyoming  the  power  to 
select  teachers  is  usually  given  to  the  city  superintendent.  In  small 
towns  and  rural  schools  the  boards  still  perform  this  fimction.  The 
table  shows,  for  example,  that  the  county  in  which  Casper  is  sit- 
uated, and  m  which  there  are  few  small  town  and  rural  schools, 
has  a  high  percentage  of  life  certificates.  Sheridan  County  (con- 
taining the  city  of  Sheridan)  reports  1 10  teachers,  42  of  whom  hold 
life  certificates  and  only  10  of  whom  hold  third-grade  certificates. 
Laramie  Coimty  (containing  Cheyenne)  shows  46  life  certificates  out 
of  a  total  of  123  certificates  and  only  7  third-grade  certificates.  The 
conclusion  is  inevitable  that  wherever  the  power  of  selecting  teachers 
is  left  to  the  proper  supervisory  officer,  instead  of  to  school  boards, 
much  better  teachers  will  be  found.  This  is  but  natural.  In  many 
States  comity  boards  of  education  and  county  superintendents  must 
approve  aU  teachers  appointed  before  the  district  receives  any  portion 
of  the  county  funds. 

General  education. — Ability  to  teach  can  be  judged  better  from 
the  applicant's  education  and  training  than  from  the  grade  of  cer- 
tificate held.  Too  many  elements  of  chance  enter  into  the  examina- 
tion method  of  judging  qualifications,  and  too  piuch  encouragement 
is  given  by  such  a  system  for  cramming  subject  matter  at  the  expense 
of  time  which  could  be  spent  better  in  preparation  for  work  in  the 
schoolroom. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  obtain  information  giving  the  exact 
education,  both  general  and  professional,  of  every  teacher  in  the 
State;  however,  only  66  per  cent  replied,  and  in  many  cases  the 
returns  on  normal  and  college  training  were  so  indefinite  that  it  is 


48 


EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OF   WYOMING. 


impossible  to  say  whether  the  work  reported  was  done  in  standard 
normal  school  or  college  courses  or  in  preparatory  department 
courses.  The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  the  1,077  reporting 
who  had  elementary  education  only,  partial  secondary  education, 
and  complete  secondary  education.  Many  of  those  with  complete 
secondary  school  work  went  to  normal  school  or  college ;  495  reported 
that  they  had  attended  such  institutions,  more  than  the  number 
reporting  attendance  at  high  schools;  many  of  these  did  not  report 
whether  or  not  they  had  any  secondary  school  work.  In  such  cases 
their  so-called  college  work  was  in  fact  secondary  work.  Many  nor- 
mal schools  in  the  United  States  and  many  institutions  known  r.s 
colleges  require  little  or  no  high-school  work  for  entrance. 

General  education,  elementary  and  secondary . 


Total  number  of  teachers  in  State 

Total  number  of  teachers  reporting 

Teachers  having  elementary  education  only 

Havmg  some  secondary,  averaging  in  amount  2.2  years 

Having  some  secondary,  amount  not  reported 

Full  4-year  secondary  (including  those  who  have  additional  college  training) . 


Total. 


Number. 


1,633 

1,077 

70 

273 

297 

437 


1,077 


Per  cent. 


6.5 
25.3 
27.6 
40.6 


100.0 


Professional  training  and  experience. — Fifty-four  per  cent  of  the 
total  number  of  teachers  report  no  professional  training  of  any  kind. 
This  shows  a  lower  percentage  of  professionally  trained  teachers  than 
exists  in  many  other  States.  Those  reporting  professional  training 
did  not  in  aU  cases  designate  the  amount.  They  reported,  however, 
attendance  in  courses  which  included  professional  education  in  nor- 
mal schools  and  colleges  as  given  below.  It  must  be  clearly  under- 
stood that  the  institutions  attended  were  not  institutions  necessarily 
requiring  any  high-school  education  for  entrance;  they  include  all 
kinds,  from  those  that  require  none  to  those  that  require  the  full 
four-year  high-school  course. 


Professional  training. 

Training. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

One  year  (normal  or  college) 

153 
162 
58 
122 
582 

14 

Two  years 

15 

Four  years  or  more      : 

11 

Reporting  none  or  not  reporting - 

54 

Total 

1,077 

99 

From  these  figures  it  is  a  fair  inference  that  at  least  half  of  the 
teachers  of  the  State  have  not  completed  a  high-school  course,  and 
many  have  gone  into  teaching  directly  from  the  eighth  grade.  If 
reports  had  been  obtained  from  all  teachers,  the  percentage  with  less 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


BULLETIN,  1916,  NO.  29     PLATE  6. 


LONE  STAR  SCHOOL,"   DISTRICT  NO.  1,  SHERIDAN  COUNTY. 


DIFFICULTY  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL,  DISTRICT  NO.  32. 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


BULLETIN.  1916,  NO.  29     PLATE  7. 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOL,  BASIN,  WYO. 


HIGH  SCHOOL.  GUERNSEY.  WYO. 


EDUCATION   IN   THE   STATE.  49 

than  a  full  high-school  education  and  the  percentage  with  elementary 
education  only  would  probably  be  greater.  Experience  in  collect- 
ing information  from  teachers  in  other  States,  particularly  that  relat- 
ing to  their  education  and  training,  shows  that  a  larger  percentage 
of  those  with  poor  training  fail  to  reply  than  of  those  with  good 
training. 

A  remedy  for  this  condition  in  the  general  education  of  teachers 
is  to  make  a  four-year  high-school  course  a  prerequisite  for  examina- 
tion for  all  grades  of  certificate  and  for  entrance  to  all  teacher-train- 
ing courses.  While  this  arrangement  might  seem  to  be  inexpedient, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  teachers  with  higher  standards 
than  those  at  present  employed,  other  States  which  have  by  legisla- 
tion established  such  a  standard  as  described  above  find  that  the 
supply  rises  to  the  demand  in  a  few  years. 

While  experience  does  not  compensate  for  lack  of  professional 
training,  it  is  evident  that,  other  things  being  equal,  a  teacher  with- 
out experience  is  not  so  well  quahfied  as  a  teacher  who  has  had  suc- 
cessful experience.  If  the  experience  is  obtained  in  a  well-organized 
city  system  under  expert  supervision,  it  is  of  greater  value  than  if 
obtained  in  rural  districts  without  this  advantage.  However,  expe- 
rience without  supervision  is  a  factor  in  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher. 
The  complete  data  on  experience  compiled  from  the  rephes  to  the 
questionnaires  are  somewhat  unrehable,  a  few  teachers  having  mis- 
interpreted the  question.  According  to  it,  of  the  1,077  teachers, 
nearly  200  were  teaching  their  first  year.  The  remainder  report 
experience  varying  from  1  year  to  40  years,  the  average  of  those  so 
reporting  being  5  years.  When  extremes  are  so  great,  it  is  obvious 
that  an  average  means  httle.  Statistics  are  given  concerning  the 
teachers  in  one  county  which  are  far  more  accurate  and  are  probably 
typical  of  conditions  in  the  majority  of  counties  in  the  State.  This 
table  shows  that  more  than  half  the  teachers  have  had  no  previous 
experience  and  that  only  a  very  small  percentage,  about  9,  have  had 
three  years'  experience  or  more.  Three  years  may  well  be  consid- 
ered as  the  smallest  possible  amount  of  time  necessary  before  one 
may  be  classed  as  following  teaching  as  a  serious  life  business. 

Experience  of  the  teachers  of  one  county  in  Wyoming. 


Experience. 


Number. 


Percent. 


Number  of  teachers  in  Laramie  County. . 

Number  teaching  first  year 

Number  teaching  second  year 

Number  teaching  third  year 

Number  teaching  fourth  year , 

Number  teaching  fifth  year 

Number  teaching  sixth  year 

Number  teaching  seventh  year 

Number  teaching  more  than  seven  years . 


123 

67 

27 

20 

3 

2 

1 

2 

1 


54.4 

21.9 

16.3 

2.4 

1.6 

.9 

1.6 


57460°— 17 i 


50  EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OF   WYOMING. 

Progressiveness  aiid  professional  spint. — The  table  at  the  close  of 
this  section  shows  data  concerning  summer  school  and  correspond- 
ence courses  and  professional  reading.  Such  items  measure  some- 
what the  teachers'  ability  to  progress  and  to  retain  a  professional 
attitude  toward  her  work.  The  majority  of  the  teachers  in  Wyoming 
do  not  attend  summer  schools;  only  6  per  cent  of  those  replying 
report  attendance  at  one  or  more.  The  actual  total  number  is 
undoubtedly  somewhat  greater.  About  6  per  cent  of  the  total 
number  reporting  had  taken  some  correspondence  work;  16  per 
cent  had  read  no  professional  books,  35  per  cent  had  read  three  such 
books,  and  32  per  cent  had  read  fewer  than  three  books;  only  8.G 
per  cent  of  the  teachers  report  that  they  read  professional  maga- 
zines. It  can  not  be  concluded  that  this  lack  of  professional  spirit 
is  confined  to  immature  and  untrained  teachers.  Teachers  who 
hold  normal-school  diplomas  often  look  upon  them  with  a  satisfied 
sense  of  finality — in  fact,  the  problem  of  training  teachers  is  probably 
matched  by  the  equally  great  one  of  keeping  them  in  training. 
Perhaps  the^only  remedy  for  this  is  professional  supervision.  This 
is  treated  in  a  later  chapter.  In  addition,  renewal  of  certificates 
should  probably  depend  on  evidence  of  professional  progress,  as  shown 
by  the  completion  of  reading-circle  work,  success  grades  given  by  the 
supervising  officer,  or  by  some  similar  requirement. 

The  following  table  is  a  summary  of  the  data  relative  to  the  1,077 
teachers  reporting  on  the  various  items  discussed  in  the  preceding 
pages: 


EDUCATION   IN   THE   STATE. 


51 


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52  'educational  survey  of  Wyoming. 

Provision  for  teacher  training. — At  present  the  university  is  the  only 
institution  in  the  State  preparing  teachers  for  service  in  the  pubHc 
schools.  The  total  enrollment  in  the  normal-school  department  and 
college  of  education  of  the  University  of  Wyoming  for  1916  was  57. 
In  1914  there  were  16  graduates  from  these  two  departments,  11  pre- 
pared especially  for  elementary  and  5  for  high-school  work;  in  1915 
there  were  15  graduates,  9  prepared  for  elementary  and  6  for  high- 
school  work;  in  1916  there  were  23  graduates,  17  with  preparation 
for  elementary  schools  and  6  for  high  schools.  Other  graduates  of 
the  imiversity  are  prepared  to  teach.  The  following  is  quoted  from 
President  Duniway: 

Under  our  system  graduates  of  the  college  of  liberal  arts  who  have  taken  requisite 
courses  in  professional  education  are  equally  entitled  with  the  graduates  of  the  college 
of  education  to  teach  in  Wyoming  schools.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  1916,  six  of  the 
graduates  of  the  college  of  liberal  arts  have  been  teachers  or  have  prepared  to  be 
teachers.  Furthermore,  under  our  system  the  six  graduates  of  the  department  of 
home  economics  have  all  been  trained  specifically  to  be  teachers  of  home  economics 
in  high  schools.  *  *  *  If  we  go  beyond  the  matter  of  graduation,  a  great  deal 
more  in  the  way  of  teacher-training  work  is  done  by  the  University  of  Wyoming 
through  its  college  of  education.  A  considerable  number  of  teachers  take  a  course  of 
one  year  and  therefore  do  not  graduate.  A  very  much  larger  number  come  to  summer 
schools  or  take  correspondence  study  courses  in  professional  subjects. 

It  is  evident  that  the  State  is  preparing  a  very  small  number  of 
teachers  for  a  Commonwealth  with  over  1,600  teachers  in  service. 
Unfortunately,  data  received  from  the  teachers  is  too  indefinite  to 
make  possible  an  accurate  statement  of  the  exact  number  of  new 
teachers  necessary  each  year  to  recruit  the  ranks  of  the  teaching 
staff.  The  approximate  number  may  be  estimated,  however,  from 
experience  in  other  States.  An  analysis  of  practically  complete 
reports  from  the  State  of  North  Dakota  shows  that  the  average 
length  of  service  of  rural  teachers  in  that  State  is  two  years;  of  those 
in  cities  and  towns,  five  and  one-half  years.  An  estimate  may  be 
made  also  from  the  experience  data  of  one  county  in  Wyoming  given 
on  page  49  and  from  the  results  of  the  study  of  instruction  in  three 
counties  given  elsewhere  in  this  report.  From  the  first  of  these  it 
appears  that  54  per  cent  of  the  teachers  in  the  county  studied  are 
inexperienced,  and  from  the  latter  that  70  per  cent  of  the  teachers 
are  employed  for  the  first  time  in  their  respective  districts.  It  is 
probable  that,  estimating  very  conservatively,  one-fourth  of  the 
1,600  teachers  change  each  year.  The  State  therefore  undoubtedly 
requires  not  less  than  400  new  teachers  each  year.  From  the 
studies  made  it  appears  that  not  more  than  half  of  this  number  can 
be  expected  to  come  from  other  States.  This  leaves  on  the  State  of 
Wyoming  the  burden  of  preparing  at  least  200  teachers  each  year. 
At  present  it  prepares  from  15  to  20  per  cent  of  that  number. 


EDucATiOisr  In  the  state.  53 

As  pointed  out  elsewhere  in  this  report,  untrained  teachers  are 
rarely  able  to  conduct  an  efficient  school.  It  may  be  reasonably 
expected  that  so  long  as  such  teachers  are  employed  the  money  spent 
on  schools  is  in  a  large  measure  wasted.  The  State  must  devise  some 
means  of  offering  professional  training  within  reach  of  young  people 
who  desire  to  become  teachers  in  order  that  the  supply  of  adequately 
trained  persons  will  at  least  approach  the  number  demanded  by 
annual  changes  in  the  force.  It  may  be  possible  that  the  tmiversity, 
which  is  at  present  the  teacher-training  institution  for  the  State,  can 
make  such  adjustments  as  will  enable  it  to  meet  this  difficulty.  But 
the  committee,  remembering  the  urgency  of  this  need,  and  keeping  in 
mind  that  it  is  the  paramount  duty  of  the  State  to  remedy  present 
conditions,  must  recommend  a  solution  either  through  the  university 
itself  or  by  estabhshing  additional  normal  schools  to  be  conveniently 
located  in  different  parts  of  the  State  under  the  management  and 
direction  of  the  State  board  of  education. 

INSTRUCTION. 

It  is  recognized  in  the  compilation  of  this  report  that  no  phase  of 
school  efficiency  is  more  difficult  to  evaluate  fairly,  and  that  none  is 
more  difficidt  to  express  in  terms  which  have  real  significance  to  the 
general  observer,  than  the  quahty  of  the  instruction.  To  visit  every 
teacher  in  the  State  would  be  as  easily  possible  as  to  judge  fairly  the 
work  by  such  visit.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  make  a  reasonably 
careful  study  of  relatively  small  territories  more  or  less  typical  of 
general  conditions  in  the  State;  and  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  what  is 
true  in  these  sections  will  be  a  fair  criterion  by  which  to  measure  con- 
ditions throughout  the  State  where  in  general  the  governing  factors 
are  similar.  It  is  also  possible  to  lay  down  certain  necessary  princi- 
ples of  instruction  and  certain  defects  in  teaching  which  are  so  obvious 
and  whose  recognition  is  so  widespread  that,  unless  the  former  are 
adhered  to  and  the  latter  avoided,  only  inefficiency  can  result.  A 
large  number  of  teachers  in  three  widely  separated  counties  were 
carefully  observed  by  members  of  the  committee  and  a  represent- 
ative of  the  bureau  after  certain  weU-defined  principles  of  judg- 
ment had  been  agreed  upon.  Only  the  more  obvious  and  generally 
accepted  of  these  principles  will  be  discussed. 

Personality. — It  is  generally  conceded  among  educators  and  laymen 
that  a  teacher,  in  order  to  be  successful,  should  have  certain  personal 
qualities  which  help  her  to  be  an  inspiration  to  the  pupils  and  an 
example  worthy  of  emulation,  at  least  in  so  far  as  academic  matters, 
such  as  the  correct  use  of  Enghsh,  and  general  matters,  such  as 
good  health,  neatness  of  person,  and  similar  factors,  are  concerned; 
similarly,  that  she  should  be  an  active  and  sympathetic  member  of 


54  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY   OF   WYOMlJJG. 

the  community  in  which  she  teaches,  and  should  possess  some  quali- 
ties of  leadership,  at  least  sufficient  to  arouse  interest  in  the  school 
and  make  it  something  vital  and  positive  to  the  community.  This 
attitude  may  be  shown  in  different  ways — in  the  organization  of 
boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  literary  societies,  and  playground  activities. 
The  rural-school  teacher  ought  to  be  far  more  a  leader  in  the  commun- 
ity than  is  here  suggested,  but  at  least  this  minimum  may  reasonably 
be  required.  It  represents  only  the  essentials,  if  the  teacher  is  to  have 
the  respect  and  influence  necessary  to  make  her  school  worth  while. 
It  may  be  said  of  the  teachers  visited  that  they  were  in  almost  all  cases 
young  men  or  women  physically  fitted  for  their  work,  careful  about 
personal  neatness,  habits,  and  manners,  and  conscientious  in  their 
desire  to  give  good  service.  Unfortunately,  when  judged  in  regard  to 
community  service,  such  favorable  conditions  are  not  apparent. 
In  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  cases  investigated  was  there  any 
marked  indication  of  leadership.  Generally  the  attitude  of  the  teacher 
is  negative  or  at  least  passive.  He  or  she  considers  that  the  four  walls 
of  the  schoolroom  should  bound  the  legitimate  activities  of  the  teacher 
and  the  school.  The  school  is  an  isolated  institution,  rather  than  a 
vital  part  of  the  community's  life.  The  teacher  comes  into  the  com- 
munity for  a  year,  is  a  passive  observer  only,  then  moves  on  to  another 
field,  with  no  apparent  desire  to  enter  into  the  fife  of  the  people  or  to 
exert  any  influence  more  lasting  than  is  left  by  the  routine  work  of 
the  schoolroom. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  unfortunate  condition  is  always 
the  fault  of  the  teacher.  There  are  factors  governing  the  matter 
which  only  strong  personalities  can  overcome.  These  lie  dormant  in 
the  system  itself  and  must  be  eliminated  before  the  resulting  condi- 
tions can  be  improved.  Those  relating  to  administration  wiU  be 
discussed  later;  it  is  sufficient  to  say  here  that  living  conditions  and 
the  existing  method  of  selecting  teachers  are  very  potent  factors. 
Of  the  teachers  now  under  discussion,  70  per  cent  are  teaching  their 
first  year  in  the  district — an  indication  of  a  condition  of  constant 
change  which  makes  real  community  interest  and  understanding 
quite  out  of  the  question.  Nearly  haK  (47  per  cent)  come  from  out- 
side the  State  of  Wyoming,  and  only  a  relatively  few  (less  than  30 
per  cent)  live  in  or  near  the  district  in  which  they  teach. 

Living  conditions  in  the  particular  sections  under  consideration 
are  better  than  in  many  of  the  more  isolated  and  poorer  districts  in 
counties  other  than  those  visited.  Yet  25  per  cent  have  either  no 
rooms  of  their  own  or  no  suitable  place  where  they  can  retire,  in  com- 
fort and  quiet  away  from  the  family,  for  such  study  and  preparation 
for  school  work  as  even  weU-trained  modern  teachers  find  necessary. 
Such  conditions,  for  which  the  teachers  are  not  immediately  respon- 
sible, are  not  conducive  to  efficiency.     No  one  does  good  work  until 


EDUCATION   IN   THE   STATE.  55 

living  conditions  are  such  as  make  for  contentment,  comfort,  and 
happiness  in  one's  work. 

Again,  the  teacher  can  not  create  the  community  life,  nor  is  it  pos- 
sible for  her  to  play  her  own  part  in  activities  when  the  community 
itself  is  indifferent.  There  is  practically  no  evidence  of  organized 
interest  in  the  rural  schools  in  the  counties  studied.  While  there  are 
a  few  organizations,  such  as  farmei-s'  unions,  the  grange,  women's 
clubs,  and  parent-teacher  organizations,  none  of  them  are  reported 
as  cooperating  helpfully  for  school  improvement  in  the  schools  visited. 
In  many  places  in  the  State  they  do  cooperate,  according  to  the 
statement  of  the  State  superintendent.  In  the  particular  commu- 
nities under  consideration  such  gatherings  as  are  held  in  the 
schoolhouse — socials,  dances,  church,  and  Sunday  school — are 
entirely  isolated  from  school  interests.  This  use  of  the  school- 
house  is  good,  but  it  does  not  go  far  enough;  it  does  not  make  the 
school  the  community  center.  In  communities  in  which  the  people 
are  indifferent  the  school  directors  are  not  as  actively  interested 
in  school  progress  as  they  might  be;  they  are  indifferent  to  the 
general  appearance  and  cleanliness  of  the  house  and  grounds,  and 
are  parsimonious  in  supplying  equipment.  The  majority  of  direc- 
tors of  the  schools  have  children  of  their  own  in  the  school.  Their 
immediate  welfare,  therefore,  is  concerned,  yet  two-thirds  of  them 
iire  reported  as  indifferent  by  the  teachers.  Their  attitude  is  due 
not  only  to  indifference,  but  to  absorption  in  other  interests  and 
to  a  lack  of  knowledge  as  to  what  constitutes  a  good  school. 
These  conditions  aU  have  direct  bearing  on  the  attitude  of  the 
teachers  and  pupils,  the  discipline  of  the  school,  and  the  place 
of  the  school  in  the  opinions  and  interests  of  parents  and  children. 
So  long  as  these  conditions  are  unchanged,  the  teachers,  even  if 
well  qualified  and  experienced,  will  be  handicapped  in  conducting 
efTicient  schools. 

The  teacher^ s  ability  to  instruct. — Ability  to  instruct  is  governed 
by  two  main  factors — (1)  the  material  offered,  or  content  of  instruc- 
tion, and  (2)  the  manner  or  method  in  which  it  is  presented.  Prac- 
tically all  of  the  teachers  visited  nominally  use  the  State  course  of 
study,  but  in  reality  they  follow  quite  literally  the  arrangement  of 
topics  set  forth  in  the  particular  text  in  use  rather  than  the  course 
of  study.  Since  there  is  very  little  uniformity  of  books,  there  is  also 
little  uniformity  in  the  work  or  in  the  grading.  This  is  inevitable  in 
a  system  in  which  each  school  is  under  the  administration  of  a  sepa- 
rate board  of  trustees.  Each  individual  district  is  an  entity  in  itself; 
the  only  connecting  link  is  the  county  superintendent,  and,  as  pointed 
out  elsewhere,  this  official  has  under  the  present  system  practically 
no  authority. 


56  EDUCATIOKAL  SUKVEY   OF   WYOMING. 

Legally  the  textbooks  are  selected  by  the  board  of  trustees;  in 
practice  the  teacher  usually  makes  the  selection.  Some  districts 
change  books  as  often  as  they  change  teachers,  generally  annually: 
while  in  others,  where  the  directors  are  either  less  accommodating 
or  less  generous  or,  as  sometimes  happens,  have  distinct  opinions  of 
their  own,  the  books  are  rarely  changed  at  all.  Of  course  some 
county  superintendents  prevail  upon  school  directors  to  select  books 
in  such  a  way  that  there  is  some  uniformity  in  the  county,  and  in 
like  manner  guide  the  teachers  to  follow  an  outlined  course,  but  this 
is  by  no  means  universal.  A  study  of  the  content  of  courses  of  study 
for  the  State,  therefore,  would  mean  practically  a  study  for  each  par- 
ticular district. 

Since  the  schools  visited  were  limited  in  number,  only  a  few  general 
conclusions  will  be  drawn  regarding  the  content  of  instruction.  Mod- 
ern practice  in  education  assumes,  since  education  is  primarily  for 
the  purpose  of  preparing  for  definite  life  needs,  that  the  subject  mat- 
ter of  the  curriculum  should  be  closely  related  to  the  vocational  life 
of  the  community  and  should  be  taught  in  terms  that  the  children 
understand.  For  example,  in  rural  communities  arithmetic  should 
not  be  presented  through  problems  in  shipbuilding  or  lumbering  or 
manufacturing  so  much  as  through  practical  problems  in  farming, 
such  as  measuring  the  amount  of  hay  in  a  stack,  or  computing  the 
percentage  of  butter  fat  found  in  milk  tested  with  the  Babcock  tester. 
Moreover,  topics  in  the  various  subjects  which  have  no  relation  to 
actual  needs  as  represented  by  community  interests — such,  for  exam- 
ple, as  bank  discount,  cube  and  square  root,  in  a  farming  commu- 
nity— are  now  omitted  from  the  curriculum.  These  examples  from 
arithmetic  will  serve  to  indicate  what  the  material  taught  in  this  and 
other  subjects  should  be.  The  survey  committee  finds  little  evidence 
of  any  effort  to  relate  the  subject  matter  of  the  course  of  study  and 
textbooks  to  the  life  of  the  children.  In  geography,  for  example,  the 
children  were  studying  industries  in  the  United  States  with  little  idea  of 
what  are  the  leading  industries  in  the  State  of  Wyoming.  They  were 
studying  other  States  in  the  Union,  but  were  unable  to  say  whether 
these  States  are  north,  east,  west,  or  south  of  the  State  in  which  they 
live.  The  arithmetic  lessons  observed  were  taken  directly  from  the 
book,  and  the  principles  studied  were  not  even  illustrated  in  terms  of 
familiar  things.  The  history  and  geography  consisted  almost  entirely 
of  memorizing  facts  exactly  as  given  in  the  book  and  then  reproducing 
these  in  recitation.  In  this  respect  Wyoming  country  schools  differ 
little  from  unsupervised  schools  in  other  States.  Not  all  teaching  was 
of  this  kind.  One  lesson  in  grammar  will  serve  as  an  illustration,  the 
exception.  In  this  class  the  children  were  not  learning  rules  or  defi- 
nitions from  any  book;  they  were  simply  learning  to  speak  and  write 
correctly  short   sentences   and   paragraphs  concerning  things  with 


EDUCATION   IN   THE   STATE.  57 

which  they  were  famiUar.  The  cow  one  milked  and  cared  for,  the 
pet  lamb  another  was  raising  on  a  bottle,  are  examples.  Such  work, 
however,  was  rare.  At  least  90  per  cent  of  the  teaching  observed 
showed  a  blind  following  of  the  textbook. 

There  was  similar  lack  of  adaptation  on  the  basis  of  different  tastes, 
changing  interests,  and  varied  abilities  of  children.  In  reading,  for 
example,  successive  lessons  in  the  textbook  were  followed.  One  les- 
son as  numbered  in  the  book  seemed  to  be  the  standard  day's  work. 
In  some  cases  the  children  observed  read  fluently  and  understand- 
ingly  and  could  very  well  have  read  another  selection,  or,  better,  could 
have  found  more  material  on  the  same  subject  from  other  books; 
yet  when  the  lesson  was  completed,  the  children,  without  being  di- 
rected to  do  so,  went  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  and  reread 
it.  Evidently  this  had  become  the  fixed  plan  and  needed  no  expla- 
nation. In  other  cases  the  children  read  poorly  and  apparently  with 
very  little  understanding  of  the  content  of  the  material  read,  yet  the 
reading  went  on  as  before,  each  pupil  taking  his  turn,  being  corrected 
in  pronunciation  now  and  then,  but  with  no  apparent  effort  made  to 
enlist  the  interest  or  to  consider  the  abilities  of  the  children  in  any 
case.  Similar  work  was  found  in  spelling.  The  words  in  the  book 
were  followed  whether  they  were  such  as  the  children  used  in  their 
ordinary  writing  vocabularies  or  not.  If  the  lesson  in  the  book  con- 
sisted of  10  words,  10  words  were  given  out  regardless  of  the  difficulty 
of  the  words  or  of  the  ability  of  the  children  to  learn  more  or  less 
than  a  lesson  of  that  particular  length. 

Methods. — Some  idea  of  the  teaching  method  will  be  gained  from 
the  foregoing.  Indeed,  content  and  method  are  so  closely  related 
that  in  any  discussion  they  will  of  necessity  overlap.  Here  again, 
only  a  few  of  the  most  obvious  principles  will  be  discussed.  It  is  a 
well-accepted  idea  in  education  that  the  schools  should  develop  power, 
initiative,  judgment,  ability  to  select  the  important  and  omit  the 
trivial,  should  impart  economical  methods  of  study,  ability  to  read 
understandingly  and  rapidly,  and  similar  qualities  which  need  not  be 
enumerated  here.  These  do  not  include  mere  memorizing  of  facts 
as  set  down  in  the  textbook  without  regard  to  their  use  and  as  if  all 
facts  were  of  equal  importance;  though  this  was  the  kind  of  lesson 
heard  almost  invariably.  If  any  effort  is  made  in  the  schools  visited 
to  develop  the  abilities  mentioned  above,  it  was  not  apparent  during 
the  visits  made,  at  least  not  in  any  but  exceptional  cases.  Although 
there  was  every  evidence  that  the  children  were  unable  to  select 
important  facts  from  the  book  and  organize  details  in  reference  to 
these,  not  a  single  lesson  was  heard  in  which  such  organization  was 
taught  or  suggested.  Practically  every  class  showed  lack  of  ability 
to  study  uitelligently ;  yet  no  study  lessons  were  seen  or  reported. 
Questions  were  formulated  directly  from  the  book  and  were  answered 


58  EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OF    WYOMING. 

cither  by  yes  or  no  or  by  a  quotation  from  the  text.  Usually  the 
questions  were  asked  in  the  order  in  which  they  appeared  in  the  book, 
and  it  was  practically  always  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  keep  the 
book  open  constantly.  It  is  uncertain  whether  this  was  in  order  not 
to  omit  anything  in  its  exact  book  sequence  or  because  the  teacher 
was  so  unfamiliar  with  the  text  as  to  need  the  book  for  her  own  refer- 
ence. Assignm'^nts  were  usually  given  as  so  many  pages,  occasion-. 
ally  so  many  topics,  in  the  same  order  as  given  in  the  book,  and 
showed  neither  thought  nor  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

The  teachers  observed  showed  very  little  appreciation  of  the  fact 
that  the  aim  or  purpose  of  a  lesson  should  govern  the  way  in  which 
it  is  taught.  literature  was  oftener  word  pronunciation  than  a  les- 
son for  appreciation  or  joy  in  the  reading.  History  was  drill  in  facts 
or  an  exercise  in  memory  more  often  than  a  study  of  life  and  insti- 
tutions. In  short,  the  recitations  in  general  were  merely  question 
and  answer  methods  of  finding  how  familiar  the  children  had  become 
with  the  particular  pages  assigned  in  the  textbook. 

It  should  be  added  that  here  again,  in  method  as  in  content,  there 
are  exceptions.  Many  teachers  in  Wyoming  are  doing  excellent 
work.  For  example,  one  school  visited  presented  an  attractive  ap- 
pearance, of  which  any  community  might  be  proud.  The  teacher 
was  teaching  her  third  successive  year  in  the  district,  was  well  trained, 
and  had  had  successful  experience  elsewhere  previous  to  her  engage- 
ment in  that  district.  The  school  was  equipped  with  simple  appar- 
atus for  manual  training  and  cooking,  placed  inconspicuously  in  the 
rear  of  the  room.  There  was  every  indication  that  the  methods  and 
discipline  and  influence  of  this  teacher  were  without  exception  good. 
Only  a  few  miles  from  this  school  is  located  one  of  the  poorest  of 
those  visited  in  the  county.  Here  was  found  an  untrained,  inexperi- 
enced, indifferent  teacher;  the  house  and  grounds  were  dirty  and  in 
bad  condition.     There  were  no  signs  of  orderliness  or  efficiency. 

The  difference  between  these  two  schools  located  so  close  together 
merely  illustrates  the  fact  that  each  individual  district  in  Wyoming 
is  a  law  unto  itself,  free  to  have  as  poor  schools  as  the  community 
will  endure.  There  is  no  system  of  equality  either  of  opportunity 
for  the  children  or  of  expense  in  conducting  the  school  for  the  patron. 
Doubtless  the  children  in  the  latter  district  were  much  the  same  in 
all  substantial  ways  as  those  of  the  former.  Both  will  help  to  make 
up  the  citizenship  of  the  county  and  the  State. 

Summary. — The  constitution  of  the  State  of  Wyoming  guarantees 
an  adequate  education  to  all,  not  some  of  its  children;  yet  glaring 
inequalities  exist.  Here  and  there  may  be  found  children  attending 
good  schools  and  enjoying  the  comfort,  convenience,  and  benefit  of 
modem  equipment  and  competent  teachers;  but  while  these  advan- 


EDucATioisr  m  the  state.  59 

tages  are  available  to  a  small  percentage  of  the  children,  a  great 
many  (probably  70  per  cent  is  a  conservative  estimate  if  the  groups 
visited  are  any  criterion)  have  none  or  onty  a  few  of  these  advantages, 
and  such  as  they  have  are  available  not  regularly,  but  only  acciden- 
tally, during  a  year  or  two  of  their  school  lives. 

These  conditions  can  be  remedied  only  by  a  systematic  reform  in 
several  different  directions. 

(1)  A  better  method  of  selecting  teachers  should  be  practiced,  in 
order  that  educational  qualifications  and  professional  training  may 
be  given  more  consideration,  and  tenure  during  good  service  assured. 
It  has  been  pointed  out  that  lack  of  training  on  the  part  of  teachers 
is  obvious  in  the  majority  of  the  rural  schools.  Unless  teachers  have 
a  general  education  at  least  four  years  in  advance  of  the  grades  they 
are  to  teach,  they  can  scarcely  be  expected  to  have  broad  enough 
foundation  for  satisfactory  school  instruction.  Unless  they  are 
trained  for  the  profession  of  teaching  in  the  fundamental  aims  of 
education  and  how  they  are  accomplished,  as  well  as  in  the  under- 
standing of  the  physical  and  mental  nature  and  interests  of  children, 
they  are  unable  either  to  instruct  pupils  or  to  organize  and  discipUne 
a  school.  In  order  to  supply  better  trained  teachers,  the  State 
must  furnish  better  facilities  than  at  present  exist  for  training  teach- 
ers, especially  for  work  in  ungraded  schools.  There  are  few  cities 
in  the  State,  and  the  rural  teachers  outnumber  those  of  the  cities 
greatly;  consequently  special  training  for  rural  work  is  the  impor- 
tant need  imder  existing  conditions. 

(2)  The  problem  of  supervision  will  be  discussed  later  and  need 
only  be  referred  to  here  as  a  necessary  factor  in  good  instruction. 
One  feels  in  visiting  them  that  the  teachers  now  in  service  would  do 
far  better  work  if  they  were  directed  by  trained,  experienced  super- 
visors. %^ 

(3)  Centralization  of  administrative  authority  is  necessary.  At 
present  the  selection  of  boofcs7the  outlining  of  the  course  of  study, 
and  the  administration  of  other  strictly  educational  matters  are 
in  the  hands  of  laymen  instead  of  experienced  educators.  The 
units  of  administration  are  too  small  and  too  widely  scattered 
to  make  for  system,  uniformity,  or  efficiency.  There  should  be  a 
more  detailed  and  better  adapted  course  of  study,  and  teachers 
should  be  taught  the  best  methods  of  using  it  through  preliminary 
training  and  through  associations  for  training  in  service.  More 
uniformity  should  be  secured  in  the  school  books  used,  either  through 
county  or  State  adoption  of  textbooks. 

(4)  Better  living  conditions  should  be  provided  for  teachers. 
Either  teachers'  cottages  should  be  erected  on  the  school  grounds 
or  living  rooms  should  be  provided   as  additions  to  schoolhouses. 


60  EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OE   WYOMING. 

unless  satisfactory  l)oarding  places  can  be  found   in  the  homes  of 
the  people. 

SUPERVISION. 

It  is  not  within  the  province  or  scope  of  this  report  to  discuss  the 
necessity  of  adequate  supervision  in  school  systems.  It  is  sufficient 
to  say  that  modem  school  practice  assumes  it  to  be  a  necessity,  that 
practically  all  of  the  towns  in  the  United  States  of  2,500  or  over  in 
population  have  provided  for  it,  and  that  many  of  the  progressive 
States  in  the  Union  have  made  or  are  making  provision  to  extend 
such  facilities  to  rural  communities.  Wyoming  is  especially  in  need 
of  adequate  supervision  for  its  coimtry  schools,  because  there  are  so 
many  inexperienced  and  imtrained  teachers  employed,  because 
teachers  and  schools  are  isolated  by  great  distances,  and  because  the 
teaching  corps  is  largely  recruited  from  outside  the  State.  Such 
teachers  need  in  a  special  manner  professional  advice  and  instruction 
to  help  them  to  organize  and  conduct  schools  successfully  and  to 
make  such  adaptations  of  school  subjects  to  community  needs  as 
modem  ideas  of  education  demand.  This  direction  only  experienced 
supervisors  —  weU-trained  and  mature  persons  familiar  with  the 
State — can  give. 

Such  supervision  as  Wyoming  rural  schools  have  is  now  given  by  the 
county  superintendents.  The  efficiency  of  county  supervision  is  con- 
ditioned by  many  factors,  a  few  of  which  will  be  discussed  here.  It 
is  evident  that  the  superintendent  must  be  a  mature  and  experienced 
person,  trained  for  the  particular  field  of  supervision,  if  he  is  to  be 
able  to  give  expert  advice  to  the  teachers  under  his  jurisdiction.  It 
follows,  then,  that  the  manner  of  selecting  the  superia  ten  dents,  the 
salaries  offered,  and  tenure,  should  be  such  as  to  attract  the  most 
capable  men  and  women  to  enter  and  remain  in  this  field.  These 
factors  will  be  considered  first. 

Selection. — ^The  county  superintendents  of  Wyoming  are  elected 
by  popular  vote  at  the  regular  general  election.  The  laws  covering 
election,  salary,  powers,  and  duties  of  county  superintendents 
were  made  many  years  ago.  Not  only  conditions,  but  educational 
ideals  and  practice,  have  changed  materially,  and  however  well  these 
laws  may  have  answered  at  that  time  the  purposes  for  which  they 
were  made,  their  adequacy  is  entirely  outgrown  at  the  present  time. 
Education  has  now  become  an  established  profession ;  the  county  super- 
mtendent  must  be  an  educator,  not  a  politician,  and  must  be  selected 
because  of  professional  fitness.  So  long  as  he  is  elected  at  a  general 
political  election  every  two  years,  depending  for  success  upon  his 
ability  to  get  votes  instead  of  on  his  ability  to  supervise  schools,  the 
position  will  not  appeal  to  many  competent  persons  trained  in  the 
educational  field. 


EDUCATION    IN   THE   STATE. 


61 


Salary. — Another  equally  unfortunate  factor — the  salary — increases 
the  difhculty  of  obtaining  and  retaining  efficient  superintendents. 
The  constitution  limits  the  salary  of  the  county  superintendent  to 
$1,000  a  year,  and  by  legislative  enactment  which  fixes  the  salaries 
all  counties  pay  less  even  than  this.  Of  the  21  superintendents  in  the 
State,  seven  receive  $900,  seven  $750,  and  seven  $500,  the  average 
salary  for  the. State  being  $717  per  year.  Many  teachers  of  the  State 
receive  more,  and  the  anomalous  situation  of  a  subordinate  receiving 
a  higher  salary  than  his  supervising  officer  is  not  uncommon  in 
Wyoming.  The  average  salary  of  city  superintendents  in  the  six 
largest  cities  of  Wyoming  is  $2,340. 

Tenure, — The  inadequate  salary  and  the  method  of  selection 
would  alone  be  sufficient  obstacles  to  securing  competent  superin- 
tendents, but  the  tenure  is  equally  unsatisfactory.  Good  work  is 
not  always  rewarded  at  popular  elections.  Two  years  is  too  short  a 
time  in  which  to  carry  out  educational  reforms,  especially  when  the 
superintendent's  function  is  advisory  only,  and  these  reforms  must 
come  about  through  his  abiUty  to  persuade  a  large  number  of  direc- 
tors, three  for  each  district,  to  adopt  them.  Even  the  misfortune  of 
accepting  persons  not  specially  trained  in  supervision  would  be  over- 
come in  some  degree  if  the  incumbents  of  the  county  superin tendencies 
remained  long  enough,  so  that  experience  in  the  position  would  com- 
pensate in  some  measure  for  lack  of  training.  In  actual  practice, 
however,  this  does  not  happen.  Of  the  superintendents  replying  to 
questionnaires  sent  out  by  the  Bureau  of  Education,  exactly  one- 
half  are  serving  their  first  term.  A  study  of  the  records  seems  to 
show  that  the  time  of  service  is  shorter  in  recent  years  than  in  the 
earlier  period  of  Statehood. 

Table  8. — Length  of  service,  in  years,  of  county  superintendents  in  Wyoming  since 
uanuary,  1891,^  including  term  of  present  incumbents,  ending  Jan.  1,  1917. 


Covmties. 

Num- 
ber 

years 
organ- 
ized. 

Num- 
ber of 
differ- 
ent su- 
perin- 
tend- 
ents.2 

Aver- 

^  age 

tenure, 

in 

years. 

Counties. 

Num- 
ber 
years 
organ- 
ized. 

Num- 
ber of 
differ- 
ent su- 
perin- 
tend- 
ents.2 

Aver- 
age 

tenure, 
in 

years. 

Albany 

26 
20 
4 

26 
26 
26 
26 
4 
4 
26 
26 

6 
5 
2 
5 

11 

9 
4 

4.3 
4.0 
2.0 
5.1 
3.7 
2.4 
3.7 
4.0 
4.0 
2.9 
6.5 

Lincoln 

4 

26 

4 

8 

4 

26 

26 

26 

4 

28 

1 
10 

1 
2 

1 
8 
9 

8 

1 
7 

4.0 

TKift  TTnrn 

Natrona 

2.6 

•      4.0 

Carbon 

Park 

4.0 

Platte 

4.0 

Crook 

Sheridan 

3.2 

Frp.mnnt 

Sweetwater 

2.9 

Uinta 

3.2 

Washakie 

4.0 

.Tnhnsnn 

Weston        

3.7 

Laramie                       . .  . 

1  Wyoming  became  a  State  in  July,  1890.  The  first  county  superintendents  elected  since  that  time 
took  office  January,  1891. 

2  These  numbers  are  approximately  correct.  No  records  could  be  obtained  for  one  2-year  period, 
and  the  names  of  one  or  two  superintendents  are  not  included  in  the  report  of  the  State  department  In 
several  instances. 


62  EDUCATIONAL   SURVEY   OF   WYOMING. 

Training. — With  all  these  adverse  conditions,  it  would  be  strange, 
indeed,  if  Wyoming  were  able  to  secure  for  its  county  superintend- 
encies  many  men  and  women  professionally  prepared  for  their 
work.  The  necessity  for  careful  training  and  special  preparation 
for  supervisors  and  teachers  both  is  now  fully  established  in  pro- 
gressive communities.  Teaching  is  a  profession  as  well  defined  in 
its  function  as  that  of  the  law,  medicine,  or  engineering,  and  one 
should  as  readily,  and  could  as  safely,  trust  an  untrained  person  with 
the  care  of  his  iU  child  as  with  that  child's  training  and  education. 
Wherever  adequate  expert  supervision  is  provided  for  rural  districts, 
as  in  Ohio  and  in  New  England,  in  the  small  cities  of  the  United 
States,  and  in  the  cities  of  the  State  of  Wyoming  itself,  not  less  than 
eight  years  of  secondary  and  higher  education  is  considered  neces- 
sary preparation  for  this  work.  Wyoming  has  not  yet  reached  the 
place  where  training  of  this  kind  can  be  demanded  or  expected  of 
rural  supervisors.  An  earnest  attempt  was  made  to  secure  informa- 
tion from  the  21  county  superintendents  now  in  office  relative  to  their 
general  education,  professional  education,  and  experience.  The 
information  was  given  by  16  of  the  superintendents.  From  the  other 
5  no  answers  were  received,  although  three  separate  requests  were 
sent,  two  from  the  Bureau  of  Education  and  one  from  the  State 
superintendent's  office.  If  experience  in  collecting  similar  data 
elsewhere  is  of  any  value  the  five  not  reporting  are  below  the  stand- 
ards of  the  others  in  training  and  education. 
The  16  report  on  general  education  as  follows: 

Elementary  school  only 3 

Some  high  school,  but  less  than  four  years 3 

High  school,  but  no  further 1 

High  school  and  less  than  one  year  of  college 6 

High  school  and  two  years  of  college 2 

High  school  and  four  years  of  college 1 

Only  a  higher  salary,  assured  tenure,  a  method  of  selection  which 
will  give  consideration  to  educational  qualifications  rather  than 
political  ones,  can  be  expected  to  improve  this  condition. 

No  consideration  of  the  office  of  county  superintendent  is  complete 
which  does  not  recognize  the  difficulties  of  the  work  itself  under  exist- 
ing conditions,  regardless  of  the  qualifications,  salary,  tenure,  etc.,  of 
the  persons  selected.  The  size  of  the  territory  to  cover,  the  number 
of  buildings  and  teachers  to  visit,  in  conjunction  with  the  traveling 
allowance  and  assistance  available,  are  important  factors  in  efficiency. 
Where  there  is  a  large  percentage  of  inexperienced  or  untrained 
teachers,  or  where  special  difficulties  are  being  met  or  experiments 
carried  on,  the  superintendent  must  make  frequent  visits.  If  dis- 
tances   are  great,   as. in  Wyoming,   assistants  are  necessary.     The 


EDUCATION   IN   THE   STATE. 


63 


counties  in  Wyoming  vary  in  area  from  2,000  to  12,000  square  miles. 
The  average  size  is  4,500  square  miles.  The  number  of  teachers  to 
be  supervised  varies  from  26  to  130,  averaging  55;  and  the  number 
of  buildings  to  be  visited  varies  from  14  to  115,  averaging  45.  On 
on  average  the  county  superintendents  in  Wyoming  pay  one  visit  to 
each  teacher  a  year,  and  tiie  average  time  spent  in  each  schoolroom 
each  year  is  one  and  one-half  hours.  It  would  seem  to  be  a  physical 
impossibility  for  one  superintendent  to  cover  a  territory  af  12,000 
square  miles,  visit  73  teachers  in  50  different  buildings,  even  if  there 
were  no  further  handicaps.  Add  to  this  the  fact  that  the  mileage 
allowance  in  the  county  referred  to  is  small,  entirely  inadequate, 
indeed,  to  cover  necessary  expenses  of  travel,  that  no  supervisory 
assistants  are  furnished,  and  the  difficulty  is  practically  insurmount- 
able. Very  few  superintendents  have  an  adequate  mileage  allowance. 
The  system  itself,  which  permits  a  board  ^  not  primarily  interested 
in  schools,  the  very  nature  of  whose  duties  makes  economy  the 
desideratum,  to  fix  the  travel  allowance,  is  sufficient  evidence  that  a 
change  is  imperative.  The  county  superintendent  is  the  only  person 
who  can  judge  when  and  how  often  the  schools  should  be  visited. 
There  is  no  possibility  of  visiting  them  too  often  under  present 
conditions. 

Some  idea  of  the  relative  attractiveness  as  to  salaries,  number  of 
assistants,  tenure,  etc.,  of  the  city  and  county  superin tendencies  in 
Wyoming,  as  well  as  the  probable  efficiency  of  the  teaching  force 
supervised  (and  therefore  the  necessity  of  close  supervision),  as 
judged  from  educational  qualifications  in  city  and  county,  may  be 
had  from  the  following  comparison.  The  statistics  given  represent 
the  average  in  five  of  the  seven  cities  in  Wyoming  which  have  a 
population  greater  than  2,500  in  column  marked  "City"  and  the 
average  for  16  counties  in  the  State  in  the  column  marked  "County." 
These  include  all  the  superintendents  who  reported. 

TabijE    9. — Comparison  of  statistics   concerning  county   and  city   superintendents  in 

Wyoming. 


Average  time  in  present  position years. 

Average  number  of  assistant  superintendents  or  supervisory  assistants 

Average  number  of  teachers  per  supervisor 

Average  number  of  visits  to  each  teacher  by  supervising  officers  (per  year) 

Average  salary  of  superintendent 


TEACHERS. 


Minimum  professional  training  required years . 

Teachers  engaged  having  professional  training per  cent . 

Teachers  having  full  4  years  of  higher  education do. . . 


City. 


4 

23 

50 

$2,340 


County. 


2 
0 
55 

$743 


0 
2  40 

2.5 


1  Allowance  for  traveling  expenses  is  made  by  the  county  commissioners. 

2  Estimated  from  tabulations  made  from  reports  of  1,000  teachers. 


64 


EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY   OF   WYOMING. 


Summary, — It  is  evident  that  insufficient  salary,  uncertain  tenure, 
the  manner  of  selection,  and  size  of  the  territory  conspire  to  render 
real  supervision  a  practical  impossibihty. 

The  county  superintendent  in  an  occasional  friendly  visit  to  the 
school  can  encourage  and  help  the  teacher  and  the  pupils.  He  can 
inspect  the  building  and  grounds  and  often  interview  the  directors 
and  persuade  them  to  do  many  things  for  the  good  of  the  school  that 
would  otherwise  be  neglected.  There  is  no  disposition  to  under- 
estimate the  benefit  of  such  work,  but  it  can  not  be  classed  as  pro- 
fessional supervision.  There  is  little  reason  to  doubt  the  spirit, 
devotion,  and  conscientiousness  which  characterize  the  present 
body  of  county  superintendents,  but  they  are  too  much  handicapped 
to  do  effective  work. 

Table  10  shows  the  maximum,  minimum,  and  average  salaries 
paid  county  superintendents  in  six  Western  States.  These  will  offer 
a  basis  of  comparison  for  salaries  paid  similar  officers  in  Wyoming. 

Table  11  is  inserted  to  show  what  is  possible  in  rural  supervision 
when  conditions  as  to  selection,  tenure,  salary,  etc.,  are  such  as  to 
attract  professionally  trained  supervisors.  The  counties  are  the 
first  16  counties  in  order  on  the  tabulation  sheets  in  the  office  of  the 
Bureau  of  Education,  and  were  compiled  from  reports  sent  in  from 
the  county  superintendents. 

In  Maine  the  territory  is  small,  enabling  supervisors  to  visit  fre- 
quently. In  Ohio  the  assistant  supervisors  are  numerous  enough  to 
insure  adequate  supervision,  though  the  table  does  not  show  this  in 
the  number  of  visits  made,  because  the  system  was  just  being  inau- 
gurated (under  provision  of  a  new  law)  when  the  reports  were  sent  in. 


Table  10. — Salaries  of  county  superintendents  in  7 

Bureau  of  Education. 


Western  States  reporting  to 


states. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Average. 

California 

S4,000 
2,100 
2,800 
3,400 
2,000 
2,000 
2,200 
1,500 
1,800 
900 

$700 

700 

100 

1,500 

2,000 

1,100 

700 

900 

1,200 

500 

$2,200 
1,280 
1,200 

Washington 

Colorado 

Utah 

2,300 
2,000 
1,320 
1,400 

Nevada     

Idaho 

Nebraska .                                                        

Montana 

1,430 

Oregon 

1,500 
717 

Wyoming 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


BULLETIN,  1916,   NO.  29     PLATE  8. 


DISTRICT  SCHOOL,  WARREN,  MONT. 


EDUCATION   IN   THE   STATE. 


65 


Table  11. — Suteen  rural  superintendents  of  Ohio,  Maine ^  and  Wyoming. 
[Includes  all  reporting  from  Wyoming  and  the  first  16  in  bureau  lists  from  the  other  States.] 


Sal- 
ary. 

Education  and 

training. 

School 
buUd- 
ings. 

One- 
teacher 
build- 
ing. 

Teachers. 

Area. 

Assistants. 

High 
schooli 

Nor- 
mal. 

Col- 
lege. 

Degree. 

Su- 

^- 

sory. 

Clcr- 
ical. 

Ohio 

«2,300 
3,000 
2,000 
2,000 
1,500 
2,000 
2,500 
1,200 
1,900 
2,000 
2,340 
2,000 
2,300 
2,100 
2,500 
2,500 
1,550 
1,550 
1,575 
1,800 
1,200 

<  1,500 

300 
1,200 

<  1,750 

300 

1,300 

1,200 

1,225 

1,400 

1,510 

2,200 

'750 

600 

900 

750 

750 

750 

600 

600 

600 

900 

600 

600 

900 

900 

600 

750 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

^ 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 

1 

2 

X 

"x" 

X 

2 



'""2 
X 

■Vs" 

X 
X 

"x" 

X 
X 

2  5(S) 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

2 
X 

6 
5 

X 

1 

A.B. 

A.  B.,  A.  M. 

a/b. 

B.S. 

B.  S.,  M.  S. 
A.  B.,  A.  M. 

98 
141 
109 
138 
180 

84 
130 

90 
103 

55 

136 
125 
102 
116 
126 
20 
23 
18 
36 
18 
19 
9 
22 
14 
19 
25 
10 
46 
27 
20 
18 
29 
19 
61 
40 
36 
50 
25 
130 
41 
45 
40 
27 
100 
19 
19 
38 

71 
110 
98 
129 
170 
63 
120 
75 
82 
92 
38 
129 

96 

107 

11 

11 

11 

31 

12 

9 

5 

21 

9 

IS 

19 

7 

41 

7 

7 

15 

15 

17 

36 

25 

31 

45 

23 

126 

38 

33 

38 

26 

80 

17 

16 

35 

164 
242 

158 
196 
188 
150 
217 
240 
173 
140 
130 
175 
190 
154 
232 
177 
56 
45 
33 
57 
28 
45 
15 
25 
31 
21 
29 
29 
59 
34 
32 
46 
61 
26 
120 
78 
54 
73 
40 
140 
54 
71 
87 
45 
160 
52 
37 
57 

500 
640 
400 

625 
400 
325 
1,200 
401 
350 
420 
430 
424 
432 
414 
400 
72 
100 

4 
9 
6 
4 
6 
4 

10 
1 
6 
3 
1 
5 
8 
2 

11 
6 

1 

(Covmty  super- 
intendents.) 

Maine 

A.B. 
Ph.B.,Ph.M. 

Ph.  B. 

A.B. 
A.  B.,  A.  M. 

A.B. 
A.  B.,  A.  M. 

a!m. 

A.  B.,  A.  M. 
A.B. 
A.B. 
A.B. 

■-■■• 

(Union  district 
superintend  - 
ents.) 

108 

108 
40 
60 

108 
45 

100 

A.  B. 

2 

A.M. 
A.B. 
A.B. 
A.  B.,  M.  D. 
A.B. 
B.Pd. 

' 

70 

216 

70 

60 

80 

2,000 

2,300 

12,000 

2,880 

4,040 

20,000 

3^125 

2,800 

2,500 

9,000 

2,100 

6,000 

4,200 

5,200 

1,800 

4,900 

X 
X 
X 

Ph.  B. 
A.B. 
A.B. 

Wyoming 

(County  super- 
intendents.) 

2 

"x" 

2S 
3C 

X 

4  1 

A.B. 

' 

X 

1 

2S 
2S 

X 
X 

3 
X 
X 

2 



4  1 

2 

2 



4 1 

» Cross  indicates  full  4  years;  figures,  number  of  years  if  more  or  less  than  4. 
2  S  means  attended  summer  school. 
8  C,  correspondence  work. 
<  Part  time. 

57460°— 17 5 


III.  REVENUE  FOR  THE  SUPPORT  OF  SCHOOLS.^ 

Wyoming  is  a  State  of  scattered  population  and  of  rich  and  un- 
developed resources.  In  the  last  decade  vast  mineral  and  oil  deposits 
have  been  opened  up.  Irrigation  and  reclamation  projects  involving 
a  large  amount  of  capital  have  been  initiated,  raih*oads  and  auto 
roads  projected,  and  a  new  era  of  development  has  begun.  This  has 
been  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  increase  in  population.  The 
United  States  Census  reports  of  1910  show  a  population  of  145,965, 
an  increase  of  57.7  per  cent  over  1900,  while  the  total  increase  for  the 
United  States  was  21  per  cent.  Wyoming  is,  therefore,  growing  in 
population  nearly  three  times  as  rapidly  as  the  country  as  a  whole. 

The  rural  population  of  the  State  is  correspondingly  prosperous 
and  growing  and  constitutes  65.7  per  cent  of  the  total  population. 
The  value  of  farm  property  increased  during  the  10-year  period  1900 
to  1910  approximately  148  per  cent;  92  per  cent  of  the  total  number 
of  farms  in  the  State  are  operated  by  owners,  and  80  per  cent  of  these 
owned  farms  are  free  from  mortgage;  57  per  cent  of  the  total  ninnber 
of  farms  in  the  State  are  irrigated. 

The  percentage  of  increase  in  irrigation  works,  in  the  output  of 
mines  and  wells,  in  manufacturing  and  industries,  corresponds  to  the 
increase  in  farm  values.  Wyoming  has  no  State  debt,  is  prosperous 
and  growing,  and  can  provide  liberally  for  the  education  of  its  chil- 
dren. It  should  take  such  anticipatory  measures  as  will  insure  ade- 
quate facilities  for  the  future,  as  well  as  for  the  immediate  present. 

The  State  has  a  higher  property  valuation  per  school  child  than 
any  State  of  the  North  Atlantic,  South  Atlantic,  or  South  Central 
groups;  higher  than  four  States  in  the  Western  group  and  higher  than 
any  in  the  North  Central  group  except  Nebraska,  North  Dakota,  and 
Iowa.  There  are  269  adults  in  Wyoming  to  bear  the  expense  of 
educatiQg  each  group  of  100  children  between  the  ages  of  5  and  18 
years,  a  larger  number  than  in  any  other  State  in  the  Union  except 
California.  Of  adult  men  21  years  and  over  Wyoming  has  179  for 
every  100  children  between  5  and  18  years — more  than  any  State  in 
the  Union  except  Nevada.  A  comparison  of  Wyoming  with  the 
States  bordering  it  in  these  three  particulars  follows: 

1  Figures  in  this  section  were  taken  from  the  reports  of  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
the  State  auditor,  special  reports  to  the  bureau  made  by  county  superintendents,  and  by  a  few  district 
boards.  The  figures  on  Lincoln  County  were  prepared  by  Supt.  Bin-ch,  of  Kemmerer,  as  were  also  some  of 
those  on  other  counties,  the  information  resulting  from  a  questionnaire  sent  by  Mr.  Buxch  for  the  com- 
mittee to  all  county  superintendents. 


REVENUE   FOR   THE   SUPPORT   OF   SCHOOLS.  67 

Value  of  property  for  each  school  child  :^ 

Idaho $5, 900 

Utah 6, 300 

South  Dakota 7, 500 

Wyoming 10,200 

Nebraska 10, 700 

Colorado 11, 100 

Montana 12,  300 

Number  of  adults  for  each  100  children  5  to  18  years  of  age: 

Utah 160 

South  Dakota 175 

Nebraska 182 

Idaho 190 

Colorado 231 

Montana 261 

Wyoming 269 

Number  of  men  21  or  over  for  each  100  children  5  to  18  years  of  age: 

Utah 85 

Nebraska 95 

South  Dakota 96 

Idaho 113 

Colorado 125 

Montana 165 

Wyoming 179 

A  growing  and  progressive,  and  therefore  a  rapidly  changing  State 
must  look  forward  if  it  would  be  ready  to  provide  for  emergencies  as 
they  arise.  Such  anticipatory  provision  is  especially  necessary  in 
considering  financial  support  for  pubhc  schools.  In  no  particular 
is  a  rapid  increase  in  population  more  noticeable  or  more  difficult  to 
provide  for  than  in  proper  and  adequate  education.  Wyoming  has 
had  this  situation  to  meet,  as  may  be  seen  from  diagrams  1,2,  and  3, 
which  indicate  graphically  the  increase  in  attendance,  the  per  capita 
expenditure,  and  the  total  expenditure.  That  the  situation  has  not 
always  been  met  satisfactorily  has  already  been  indicated  in  the  sec- 
tion devoted  to  instruction  and  supervision.  As  was  pointed  out  in 
that  section,  this  is  partly  due  to  lack  of  adequate  financial  support, 
as  well  as  to  other  causes  mentioned. 

Wyoming  must  provide,  for  the  present  at  least,  for  conditions 
brought  about  by  scattered  population  and  highly  differentiated  local 
valuations.  Rich  coal  region  districts,  containing  valuable  improve- 
ments, machinery,  railroad  terminals,  etc.,  constitute  a  school  unit 
immediately  adjoining  large  tracts  of  unproductive  land  whose  value 

1  This  means  that  an  average  school  district  of  40  children  in  Idaho,  for  example,  would  have  behind  it 
property  valued  at  $236,000,  and  76  adult  men  and  women,  45  of  whom  would  be  men  21  years  of  age  and 
over.  In  Wyoming  the  average  school  of  this  size  would  have  behind  it  proi)erty  valued  at  $408,000,  and 
108  adults,  76  of  whom  wonld  be  men  21  years  of  age  and  over. 


68  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF   WYOMING. 

and  corresponding  assessable  possibilities  are  negligible.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  if  local  taxation  alone  is  to  be  depended  upon  for  school 
support  there  can  be  no  equality  of  burdens  for  the  tax  payer  except 
at  the  expense  of  school  facilities.  But  education  is  a  State  function, 
as  necessary  to  the  preservation  of  the  State's  integrity  and  progress 
as  are  the  capitol  building  and  the  legislature  itself.  The  State  must 
therefore  devise  means  to  equalize  educational  opportunity  and 
expense  within  its  borders.  The  legislature  has  made  attempts  to 
do  this,  notably  in  passing  a  law  providing  that  districts  receive 
$300  from  the  coimty  for  every  teacher  employed,  regardless  of  the 
size  of  the  district.  Other  steps  in  the  same  direction  are  necessary, 
however. 

Sources  of  revenue, — The  schools  of  Wyoming  derive  their  support 
from  tliree  sources,  the  State  school  fund,  the  county  general  tax,  and 
the  special  local  levy.  In  addition  there  are  rentals  from  forest 
reserves,  the  penal  fund,  and  revenue  from  poll  taxes.  In  this  report 
these  will  not  be  considered  separately,  however,  but  as  part  of  the 
special  and  county  fund,  nor  will  the  expense  of  collecting  and  the 
loss  from  failure  to  collect  the  tax  be  considered. 

Revenue  from  the  State. — ^The  permanent  State  school  fund  from  the 
sale  of  school  lands,  escheats,  forfeitures,  grants,  gifts,  etc.,  amounts 
to  $1,015,364.84.  Approximately  two-thirds  of  this  is  invested  in 
school  funds  drawing  5  or  6  per  cent  interest,  and  about  one-third  is 
deposited  in  banks  drawing  3  per  cent  interest.  There  are  approxi- 
mately 3,450,000  acres  of  land  for  the  support  of  the  elementary  and 
secondary  schools  of  the  State.  Approximately  three-fourths  of  the 
yearly  income  from  the  State  comes  from  the  rentals  of  these  lands. 
The  total  income  for  the  year  ended  March,  1916,  from  the  above- 
named  sources  (interest  on  permanent  funds  and  rentals)  was  $332,132, 
or  $8.39  per  school  child,  there  being  39,584  between  6  and  21  years  of 
age  in  the  State  in  1915.  Under  Federal  regulations  25  per  cent  of 
the  money  derived  from  leasing  the  forest  reserve  lands  and  the  sale 
of  timber  thereon  must  be  turned  over  to  the  State  for  the  benefit  of 
the  schools  and  public  roads  of  the  county  or  counties  in  which  the 
reserve  is  situated.  The  commissioners  of  the  respective  coimties 
decide  how  much  of  this  fund  shall  be  used  for  each  of  the  two  pur- 
poses, 5  per  cent  being  the  minimum  amount  which  can  be  used  for 
either. 

Revenue  frorn,  the  county, — The  county  commissioners  of  each 
county  are  required  by  law  to  levy  a  general  county  school  tax  suffi- 
cient to  raise  $300  for  each  teacher  employed  in  the  county,  provided 
that  for  each  teacher  for  which  credit  is  claimed  there  is  an  average 
attendance  of  6  in  "grade  schools"^  and  10  in  high  schools,  and  pro- 

1  Interpreted  by  the  Supreme  Court  not  to  refer  to  ungraded  one-teacher  coimtry  schools. 


REVENUE  FOR  THE   SUPPORT  OF   SCHOOLS. 


69 


videcl  also  tliat  there  is  a  minimum  term  of  six  montlis.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  commissioners  to  levy  a  poll  tax  of  $2  for  each  person 
between  the  ages  of  21  and  50,  to  be  used  for  school  purposes  only  and 
for  the  exclusiv^e  use  of  the  school  fund  in  the  district  in  which  the 
same  is  located.  All  fines  and  penalties  under  the  general  laws  of  the 
State  go  into  the  public  school  fund  of  the  respective  districts. 

Revenue  from  the  district. — The  property  owners  in  a  school  dis- 
trict may,  at  the  annual  district  meeting,  vote  a  special  tax  of  31  mills 
for  school  purposes.  An  additional  amount  not  exceeding  5  mills 
on  all  the  taxable  property  of  the  district  may  be  voted  at  any  regu- 
lar or  special  meeting,  provided  30  days'  notice  has  been  given. 

Bonds. — The  board  of  school  trustees  may  submit  to  the  property 
owners  of  the  school  district  the  question  of  authorizing  the  board  to 
issue  coupon  bonds,  not  to  exceed  2  per  cent  of  the  taxable  property 
in  the  district,  at  a  rate  of  interest  not  higher  than  6  per  cent,  for  a 
period  not  longer  than  25  years,  for  the  purpose  of  building  school- 
houses  and  providing  the  necessary  furniture  or  for  refunding  out- 
standing indebtedness. 


INEQUALITY  OF  THE   PRESENT   SYSTEM   OF  TAXATION. 

State  support. — From  the  standpoint  of  a  State  the  question  of 
financing  schools  centers  about  these  considerations:  (1)  Is  the  reve- 
nue provided  sufficient  to  insure  at  least  reasonable  minimum  school 
facilities?  (2)  Are  the  provisions  for  raising  and  distributing  it 
equitable?  (3)  Are  the  several  units  from  which  funds  come.  State, 
county,  and  school  district,  all  bearing  their  proper  share  of  the 
burden? 

That  the  first  consideration  is  not  satisfactorily  met  is  apparent 
from  the  preceding  chapters  on  instruction,  supervision,  and  teaching 
corps.  In  addition  it  may  be  of  interest  to  compare  Wyoming  with 
other  Western  States  as  to  per  capita  expenditure  and  expenditure 
per  $100  of  assessed  valuation.  The  following  statement  shows  that 
in  1912-13  Wyoming  spent  less  per  capita  of  school  population  than 
eight  other  Western  States.  In  1913-14  an  encouraging  improve- 
ment was  made,  but  the  State  is  still  near  the  bottom  of  the  list. 
Later  figures  are  not  available. 

Table  12. — Per  capita  expenditures  for  schools. 


states. 

In  1912-13. 

In  1913-14. 

States. 

In  1912-13. 

In  1913-14. 

$31.37 
31.58 
34.26 
36.11 
36.39 

133.13 
31.02 
34.68 
33.71 
34.63 

Nevada 

$40.  24 
42.76 
48.99 
49.28 

$40.  72 

Colorado 

Washington 

40.57 

Utah.. 

Montana 

41  48 

Idaho 

California 

49.58 

Oregon 

70 


EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OP  WYOMING. 


The  following  table  shows  how  much  several  Western  States  spent 
on  education  per  $100  of  assessed  valuation.  The  figures  are  for 
1912,  the  latest  available.  A  comparison  on  true  valuation  is  given 
elsewhere  in  this  report.     (See  p.  94.) 

Table  13. — Wealth  and  school  expenditure  in  1902  and  1912. 


States. 


Assessed  valu- 
ation of  all 
property  sub- 
ject to  ad  valo- 
rem taxation, 
1912. 


Expenditure 
for  public 
schools,  ex- 
cluding debt 
paid,  1912. 


Expended  for  pub. 
lie  schools  on 
each  $100  of 
assessed  valua- 
tion of  all  prop- 
erty. 


1902 


1912 


United  States.... 

Western  Division 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New  Mexico. 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington. . 

Oregon 

California 


$69,452,936,104 


$482,886,793 


Cents. 


Cents. 


346, 
180, 
422, 
72, 
140, 
200, 
101, 
167, 

1,005, 
905, 

2,921, 


550,585 
750,630 
330, 199 
457, 454 
338, 191 
299,207 
087,082 
512, 157 
086,251 
Oil,  679 
277,451 


23 


354,934 
997,022 
527, 569 
112,840 
321, 631 
626, 686 
625, 562 
959, 124 
526,931 
095, 111 
978,621 


47.4 
58.5 
87.6 
62.4 
96.4 
118.6 
71.4 
112.4 
107.5 
121.7 
59.0 


55.2 
154.6 
153.6 

94.2 
181.1 

61.9 
176.7 
104.7 

67.3 

82.1 


The  inefficiency  of  administration  and  the  inequitable  distribution 
of  funds  are  responsible  for  much  waste,  and  these  administrative 
agencies  are  so  closely  connected  with  the  financial  agencies  that  it  is 
difficult  to  differentiate  clearly  and  show  just  how  much  is  due  to  lack 
of  economical  administration  and  how  much  to  insufficient  funds. 
But  the  poor  buildings  and  equipment,  low  salaries,  etc.,  described  in 
preceding  chapters,  indicate  that,  for  the  immediate  present  at  least, 
more  money  will  be  needed  to  provide  adequate  educational  facilities 
and  that  the  State  itseK  will  need  to  aid  more  substantially  than  it 
has  in  the  past.  This  may  be  justified  on  the  basis  of  fairness  as  well 
as  necessity,  because  of  scattered  population  and  because  so  much 
of  the  wealth  of  the  State  (coal  and  oil,  for  example)  really  contribute 
to  State  as  well  as  to  local  prosperity.  The  exact  methods  of  accom- 
pHshing  this  will  be  discussed  later  in  the  report. 

The  second  and  third  considerations  regarding  the  raising  and 
distributing  of  the  revenue  will  be  more  fully  described  under  county 
and  special  taxation  and  will  be  referred  to  only  briefly  here.  In  a 
State  in  which  the  district  system  prevails,  as  in  Wyoming,  a  just 
distribution  of  school  expense  is  best  attained  when  the  State  pays 
approximately  one-third,  the  county  one-third,  the  local  district 
one-third.  Many  districts  in  the  State  have  a  low  property  valuation 
and  a  large  school  population,  and  even  with  a  high  special  levy  are 
unable  to  provide  good  schools .  Other  districts  have  a  large  valuation, 
few  school  children,  and  little  or  no  special  levy.  The  State,  while  as- 
suming its  share  of  educational  burdens,  must  see  to  it  that  the  local  dis- 


REVENUE  FOR  THE   SUPPORT  OF   SCHOOLS. 


71 


trict  also  does  its  share,  and  likewise  the  county  assumes  a  fair  share  of 
the  burden.  Table  14  shows  the  percentage  of  total  income  received 
from  each  of  the  three  different  sources  in  all  of  the  counties  of  the 
State.  The  State  fund  is  now  distributed  on  a  per  capita  basis,  and, 
as  would  be  expected  under  such  a  system,  some  counties  are  receiving 
from  the  State  a  far  higher  percentage  of  their  total  school  expendi- 
ture than  others.  Three  counties  receive  one-third  or  over,  two 
receive  but  one-sixth,  and  the  others  receive  amounts  varying 
between  these  extremes.  Later  in  this  report  ^  it  will  be  shown  that 
the  unfairness  of  distribution  is  even  more  marked  when  considered 
from  a  district  standpoint  than  when  considered  from  a  county 
standpoint. 

Table  14. — Sources  of  school  funds  in  Wyoming. 


Amount  received  from— 

Per  cent  received  from— 

Counties. 

State. 

County. 

Local. 

State. 

County. 

Local. 

$17, 191 

20, 144 

17,560 

4,833 

7,929 

18,508 

15,429 

11,209 

5,663 

8,482 

34,793 

36,253 

10,043 

8,768 

12,392 

13,265 

34,407 

26,054 

15,655 

4,388 

11,142 

$31,863 
21,630 
23,462 
11,906 
12,641 
18. 418 
24,977 
13,709 

4,080 
12,072 
55,079 
36, 695 
16,471 
14,022 
16,660 
26,695 
35,275 
19,574 
18, 150 

8,700 
16,432 

$36,133 
26,646 
26. 567 
12,828 
20,064 
17,553 
23,494 
13,308 
17, 437 
11,283 
65,973 
27,453 
35, 671 
17,096 
25,902 
33, 149 
62, 711 
20,423 
28, 746 
8,868 
16,303 

20.18 
29.44 
25.98 
16.35 
19.51 
33.97 
24.15 
29.32 
20.84 
26.64 
22  33 
36.11 
16.15 
21.98 
22.55 
18.14 
25.99 
39.45 
25.03 
19.98 
25.39 

37.40 
31.62 
34.71 
40,26 
31.11 
33.81 
39.08 
35.86 
15.01 
37.92 
35.34 
36.55 
26.49 
35.16 
30.32 
36.52 
26.64 
29.63 
29.02 
39.63 
37.45 

42.42 

BieHom        

38.94 

39.31 

43.39 

r!nnvfir<?ft                                 

49.38 

Crook            

32.22 

Vrftm  nnt,                       

36.77 

34.82 

Hot  SprinES 

64.15 

35.44 

Laramie 

42.33 

T/inpnln                                      .... ... .. 

27.34 

57.36 

NinVirara.                         . 

42.86 

Park              

47.13 

Platte                       

45.34 

Sheridan    

47.37 

30.92 

Uinta    - 

45.95 

40.39 

Weston               

37.16 

State    

25.31 

33.22 

41.47 

It  is  obvious  that  when  population  is  scattered,  as  in  Wyoming, 
and  ranches  are  isolated,  there  will  be  certain  communities  in  which 
schools  will  have  a  very  small  enrollment.  However,  the  expense  of 
maintaining  a  school,  including  the  salary  of  the  teacher,  is  practi- 
cally the  same  whether  5  or  25  children  are  enrolled,  yet  the  one 
receives  from  the  State  approximately  one-fifth  as  much  as  the 
other.  Again,  the  State  apportionment  is  made  on  a  basis  of  dis- 
trict census,  which  includes  all  children  in  the  district  from  6  to  21 
years  of  age.  The  expense  of  maintaining  school  is  concerned  only 
with  those  children  between  6  and  14  ^  where  elementary  schools  only 
are  supported  and  those  between  6  and  18^  years  of  age  where  there 
are  high  schools.  There  is  no  apparent  reason  for  giving  school 
money  to  young  men  and  women  who  have  finished  school,  some  of 
whom  are  now  married  and  have  children  of  their  own.     Further- 


1  See  tables  concerning  Lincoln  county. 


2  Inclusive. 


72  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMING. 

more,  distribution  on  a  per  capita  basis  has  no  educational  significance, 
because  it  places  no  premium  on  local  effort  unless  it  stimulates  each 
commimity  to  get  names  on  the  census  list.  The  tendency  is  to  cause 
districts  to  rely  entirely  on  State  and  county  funds,  and  to  reduce 
salaries  and  term  of  school  so  that  the  total  expenditure  is  within 
the  amount  so  received. 

An  apportionment  based  one-half  on  number  of  teachers  and  one- 
half  on  the  aggregate  daily  attendance  would  be  a  far  more  equitable 
one  in  Wyoming  and  would  give  individual  communities  an  incentive 
to  work  for  better  school  attendance  and  longer  terms.  Aggregate 
attendance  is  the  average  daily  attendance  multiplied  by  the  number 
of  days  in  the  annual  school  session.  There  is  the  possible  objection 
that  such  a  distribution,  if  large  enough  to  pay  the  entire  salary  of 
the  teacher,  may  encourage  districts  to  engage  more  teachers  than 
are  needed.  This  possibihty  would  be  avoided  if  funds  were  dis- 
tributed to  approved  schools  only,  as  suggested  in  another  portion 
of  this  report.^ 

Not  only  is  it  good  pohcy  on  the  part  of  a  State  to  encourage  local 
initiative,  but  statistics  given  show  that  in  Wyoming  it  seems  abso- 
lutely essential  to  force  certain  backward  communities  to  assume  a 
just  share  of  educational  expenditure.  Seventy  per  cent  of  the 
comities  in  the  State  contain  some  districts  which  make  no  local  tax 
levy;  on  the  other  hand  many  communities  with  low  taxable  valua- 
tion and  a  large  number  of  children  enrolled  in  school  are  paying  a 
very  high  levy  and  still  are  unable  to  provide  satisfactory  school 
facihties.  The  State  could  profitably  increase  its  school  fund  by  a 
special  State  tax.  Part  of  this  should  be  added  to  the  income  of 
the  permanent  fund  as  already  constituted  and  part  should  form  a 
reserve  fund  imder  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State  board  of  education. 
This  reserve  fund  should  be  apportioned  to  deserving  districts  for 
certain  needs  which  can  not  be  met  locally  when  the  maximmn 
special  levy  has  been  made.  A  considerable  amount  of  this  reserve 
fund  should  also  be  available  for  assisting  schools  which  make  special 
effort  in  any  direction  recommended  by  the  State  board — such  as  the 
establishment  of  secondary  schools  or  the  introduction  of  special 
subjects  like  agriculture,  cooking,  and  sewing. 

The  advantages  of  State  over  county  taxation  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  county  over  the  district.  By  a  partial  pooling  of  effort, 
longer  terms  and  better  teachers  can  be  secured  throughout  the  State 
than  if  each  district  were  left  entirely  to  itself. 

Perhaps  all  children  can  not  have  absolutely  equal  advantages,  but 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  State  to  secure  a  certain  agreed-upon  minimum^ 
and  to  encourage  communities  to  extend  their  -educational  energies 
as  far  as  possible  to  new  and  desirable  undertakings.     Such  advan- 

1  See  recommendations  relative  to  county  board  of  education. 


REVENUE  FOR  THE   SUPPORT  OF   SCHOOLS. 


73 


tages  as  the  State  deems  absolutely  necessary  it  must  require  and 
must  help  the  communities  to  finance. 


•n 

5 

1 

\ 

i 

o 

CO 

1 

8 

' 

V 

b 



.-. 

.'.. 

6 

4 

1 

, 

t 

a 

«            1 

2 

^^^ 

1 

-J 

Fig.  2.— Increase  in  per  capita  expenditure  of  total  population  for  schools 
in  Wyoming,  1870-1914. 

Other  things  being  equal,  in  an  equitably  adjusted*  system  (always 
omitting  buildings  and  permanent  improvements)  the  tax  levy  for 


74 


EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF   WYOMING. 


school  maintenance  should  be  approximately  the  same  in  all  districts, 
and  the  income  per  school  unit  (that  is,  one  teacher  and  the  group  of 
children  under  her  charge)  should  approximate  uniformity.  In  any 
classification  made  as  to  administration  and  taxation,  these  con- 
siderations, together  with  the  fact  that  it  is  the  paramount  duty  of 
the  State  to  provide  adequate  education  for  all  its  children,  should 
be  carefully  observed.  It  is  important  to  see  how  nearly  Wyoming 
approaches  such  a  standard. 

County  and  district  support — ^Table  15  shows  the  assessed  valuation, 
county,  general,  and  special  local  tax  levies,  census  valuation  per 
school  child,  and  approximate  State  apportionment.  It  will  be  seen 
from  this  table  that  the  different  counties  bear  very  unequal  shares 
of  total  school  expenditure  through  county  general,  taxation  and, 
consequently,  must  either  have  poor  schools  or  force  too  high  local 
levies  on  the  individual  districts.  Presumably  the  county  levies 
should  be  the  same  or  about  the  same,  assuming  that  valuations  are 
equahzed;  yet  as  the  table  shows,  they  vary  from  0.97  of  a  mill 
in  Sweetwater  County  to  the  maximiun  of  3  mills  in  Big  Horn,  Crook, 
Goshen,  Niobrara,  Platte,  and  Weston  Coimties.  The  valuation  of 
taxable  property  per  school  child  varies  from  $2,783  in  Crook  County 
to  $11,466  in  Natrona  County.  This  means  that  every  school  child 
in  Crook  County  can  draw  on.  a  valuation  of  $2,783  for  the  expense  of 
its  education,  while  every  child  ia  Natrona  has  a  like  income  drawing 
possibihty  of  $11,466.  Since  the  State  gives  the  same  amount  per 
capita  ia  both  cases,  it  is  evident  that  either  the  education  of  the 
children  in  Crook  County  suffers  materially,  or  the  special  tax  rate 
must  be  approximately  fom*  times  as  great  if  the  same  educational 
advantages  are  offered. 


Table  15.— 

Income  and  tax  rates, 

by  counties. 

Assessed 
valuation.i 

School 
census. 

Valu- 
ation 
per 
census 
child. 

State 
appor- 
tion- 
ment. 

General  county 
school  tax.  1 

Special  school 
tax.i 

Counties. 

Mills 
levy. 

Amoimt 
of  tax. 

Average 
mills 
l(evy.2 

Amount 
of  tax. 

Albany        

$14,683,263 

7,209,937 

16,069,704 

4,762,344 

8,155,482 

6,139,427 

10,407,092 

4,569,712 

4,080,902 

5,748,608 

23,437,704 

14,334,018 

13,725,804 

4,673,897 

6,664,058 

8,898,194 

19,170,942 

20,179,091 

8,642,738 

3,480,125 

5,477,168 

2,049 
2,401 
2,093 
570 
945 
2,206 
1,839 
1,336 
'675 
1,011 
4,147 
4,321 
1,197 
1,045 
1,477 
1,581 
4,101 
2,867 
1,806 
523 
1,328 

$7,117 
3,003 
7,678 
8,268 
8,630 
2,783 
5,659 
3,420 
6,046 
5,687 
5,652 
3,317 

11,467 
4,473 
4,512 
5,628 
4,675 
7,038 
4,632 
6,654 
4,124 

$17, 191 

20, 144 

17,560 

4,833 

7,^29 

18,508 

15,429 

11,209 

5,663 

8,482 

34,793 

36,253 

10,043 

8,768 

12,392 

13,265 

34,407 

26,054 

15,656 

4,388 

11,142 

2.17 
3.00 
1.46 
2.50 
1.55 
3.00 
2.40 
3.00 
1.00 
2.10 
2.35 
2.56 
1.20 
3.00 
2.50 
3.00 
1.84 
.97 
2.10 
2.50 
3.00 

$31,862.68 
21,629.81 
23,461.77 
11,905.86 
12,641.00 
18,418.28 
24,977.02 
13,709.14 

4,080.90 
12,072.08 
55,078.61 
36,695.09 
16,470.97 
14,021.69 
16,660.15 
26,694.57 
35,274.53 
19,573.72 
18,149.75 

8,700.31 
16,431.50 

2.743 
3.525 
2.530 
2.666 
2.010 
3.500 
2.744 
2.750 
4.340 
1.605 
3.013 
3.644 
1.415 
3.500 
3.654 
3.290 
2.723 
1.856 
3.100 
2.760 
2.000 

$36, 132. 92 

Big  Horn 

26,646.17 

Carbon       

26,567.23 

Campbell 

12,828.12 

Converse    

20,063.02 

Crook 

17,552.65 

Fremont       

23,494.39 

13,307.88 

17,437.11 

Johnson                     .      . .  - 

11,282.74 

Laramie      

65,972.61 

Lincoln                      -  -  . -  - 

27,452.56 

Natrona      

35,670.66 

Niobrara                    .... 

17,096.30 

Park      

25,901.91 

Platte 

33, 148. 58 

Sheridan  

62,710.55 

Sweetwater             . 

20,422.62 

Uinta    

28, 746. 18 

Washakie           

8,868.23 

Weston        .'.. 

16,302.89 

Reported  to  the  State  examiner  for  the  year  1915. 


*  Many  districts  have  no  special  tax. 


REVENUE   FOE  THE  SUPPORT  OF   SCHOOLS. 


75 


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eighth- 
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ation 

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76 


EDUCATIONAL  SUBVEY  OF   WYOMING. 


However,  special-tax  burdens  are  much  fiu-ther  from  being  equita- 
ble. The  table  shows  also  that  the  average  special  district  tax 
varies  from  1.4  mills  in  Natrona  (a  county  with  a  high  per  capita 
valuation  as  noticed  above)  to  4.3  mills  in  Hot  Springs  County. 
The  facts  are  that  some  districts  which  have  large  valuation  need  a 
very  small  levy  for  reasonably  good  schools,  and  other  districts  with 
small  valuations  must  levy  a  high  rate  in  order  to  provide  even 
meagerly  for  the  children.  The  small  levy  or  the  lack  of  any  levy 
at  all  may  also  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  community  is  too  indifferent 
to  the  necessity  of  education  to  care  properly  for  the  expense  of  good 
school  faciUties.  The  following  shows  the  percentage  of  districts 
which  make  no  special  levy  for  each  of  18  counties  of  the  State  from 
which  data  were  obtained 


Per 
cent. 

Albany 60 

Lincoln ^50 

Washakie 37^ 

Crook 36 

Converse 33J 

Johnson 31 


Per 
cent. 

Weston 25 

Sheridan 25 

Park 20 

Carbon 14| 

Big  Horn ]2i 

Niobrara 9tV 


Per 
cent. 

Laramie 0 

Fremont 0 

Campbell 0 

Unita 0 

Hot  Springs 0 

Natrona 0 

Table  16  is  a  detailed  study  of  one  county  showing  special  district 
levies,  the  amount  received  from  special  levy  and  polls,  the  amount 
from  county  general  tax,  and  the  amount  from  the  State.  Fifty  per 
cent  of  the  districts  in  this  coimty  levy  no  special  tax,  but  depend  upon 
the  State  and  county  for  the  entire  support  of  their  schools  (excepting 
the  small  amount  from  polls).  Reference  to  Table  16  will  verify  in 
part  the  statement  of  one  investigator  that  these  schools  usually  have 
poorly  qualified  teachers,  with  low  salaries,  short  terms,  poor  build- 
ings and  equipment.  So  indifferent  are  some  of  these  districts  that 
data  on  enrollment  and  attendance  are  not  available  in  the  office  of 
the  county  superintendent.  In  contrast  to  these,  district  No.  20 
levies  a  tax  of  7  mills,  employs  five  teachers,  enrolls  75  per  cent  of 
its  census  children,  pays  $70  to  $80  to  its  teachers,  and  has  a  six  or 
nine  months'  term;  This  district  pays  52  per  cent  of  its  total  school 
expenditure  by  local  tax  and  receives  approximately  24  per  cent 
from  the  coimty  and  the  same  from  the  State. 

The  following  shows  the  percentages  of  total  expenditure  for  schools 
coming  from  local,  county,  and  State  sources  in  Lincoln  County : 


REVENUE   FOR  THE   SUPPORT  OF   SCHOOLS. 
Table  17. — Per  cent  of  taxes  from  various  sources  in  Liincoln  County. 


77 


Districts. 

Local. 

County. 

State. 

No.  1.. 

44 

29 

27 

•    2.. 

39 

31 

31 

3.. 

12 

34 

54 

5.. 

14 

43 

43 

6.. 

10 

70 

20 

7.. 

10 

58 

32 

8.. 

54 

29 

17 

9.. 

9 

64 

26 

10.. 

8 

70 

21 

19.. 

20 

39 

41 

20.. 

61 

24 

24 

21.. 

45 

27 

28 

22.. 

13 

44 

43 

23.. 

26 

35 

38 

District  1,  with  a  special  levy  of  3  J  mills,  pays  44  per  cent  of  the 
total  expenditure  through  special  levy  and  receives  approximately 
28  per  cent  each  from  the  county  and  State.  Districts  Nos.  19,  21, 
and  23,  with  the  same  special  levy  of  3  J  mills,  pay  from  local  sources, 
respectively,  20  per  cent,  45  per  cent,  and  26  per  cent  of  the  total 
expenditure.  The  county  and  the  State  each  contribute  approxi- 
mately one-half  of  the  remaining  80  per  cent,  65  per  cent,  and  74 
per  cent,  respectively.  These  districts,  though  paying  the  same  tax 
levy,  raise  thereby  very  different  amounts  (see  Table  16),  spend 
different  amounts  of  money  per  teacher,  and  have  different  tax-levying 
wealth  per  child.  For  example,  district  21  has  more  than  twice  the 
wealth  per  child  that  district  23  has.  The  wealth  per  teacher  em- 
ployed varies  as  greatly  in  these  districts  as  shown  in  Table  18. 

Table  18. — Valuation  per  teacher  and  child  in  Lincoln  County. 


Amount 

received 

Valuation 

Valuation 

from  State 

Districts. 

per 

per  school 

divided  by 

teacher. 

child. 

the  number 
of  teachers 
employed. 

No.  1.... 

$108,916 

$3,225 

$284 

2.... 

181,693 

4,761 

319 

3.... 

95, 759 

1,587 

506 

0 

400,693 

10,236 

328 

6.... 

155, 188 

15,419 

91 

7.... 

180,674 

6,691 

176 

8.... 

180,135 

8,263 

182 

9.... 

150,040 

8,256 

132 

10.... 

73,401 

6,291 

98 

19.... 

36,833 

1,007 

296 

20.... 

96,039 

2,632 

319 

21.... 

118,966 

2,974 

333 

22.... 

82,794 

2,207 

314 

23.... 

39,562 

'964 

344 

The  difference  in  valuation  per  school  child  for  the  different  dis- 
tricts in  the  county  is  shown  also  in  the  table  referred  to.  This  in 
itself  is  not  always  a  fair  method  of  judging  the  ability  of  a  district 
to  maintain  necessary  schools.    As  previously  stated,  one  teacher 


78 


EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMING. 


is  needed  for  a  school  of  5  as  well  as  for  one  of  25  children,  and  he 
should  be  as  well  qualified  and  therefore  receive  as  much  salary. 
The  wealth  per  teacher  is  a  fairer  basis  of  judgment  than  the  wealth 
per  child.  The  table  shows  that  the  two  valuations  do  not  always 
correspond.  In  the  county  studied  the  wealth  per  teacher  varies 
from  $36,833  in  No.  19  to  $400,693  in  No.  5.  This  difference  m 
valuation  indicates  how  much  more  in  proportion  .to  wealth  some 
communities  must  pay  for  education  than  others.  The  table  shows 
also  the  amount  received  from  the  State  divided  by  number  of 
teachers  employed.  The  county  fund  is  now  distributed  on  this 
basis. 

It  is  fair  also  to  consider  what  the  different  districts  in  the  county 
contribute  to  the  county  funds  and  the  relation  of  this  contribution 
to  the  amount  they  receive  in  return  from  the  county.  Table  19 
makes  such  a  comparison. 

Table  19. — Arrwunts  received  from  and  paid  to  the  county  general  fund  by  districts  in  one 

county.^ 


Districts. 

Received 

from 
county. 

Paid  to 
county. 

Paid  more  or  less 
than  received. 

No.    1... 

$8,951.04 

$8,364.75 

$586. 29  less. 

2... 

3,516.48 

5, 107. 15 

1, 590. 67  more. 

3... 

1,918.08 

1,470.87 

447.211ess. 

5... 

2,327.76 

7,180.43 

4, 852. 67  more. 

6... 

2,557.44 

3, 178. 19 

620. 75  more. 

7... 

319.68 

462.53 

142. 85  more. 

8... 

1,598.40 

1,305.94 

292. 46  less. 

9... 

1,287.72 

1,331.61 

43. 89  more. 

10... 

959.04 

563.72 

396. 32  less. 

19... 

11,828.16 

3,960.31 

7,967.  85  less. 

20... 

1,598.40 

1,229.30 

369. 10  less. 

21... 

959.04 

913.66 

45. 38  less. 

22... 

639.36 

424.91 

214. 45  less. 

23... 

639.36 

202.  5« 

436. 80  less. 

1  No  allowance  made  for  loss  from  uncollected  taxes  or  for  cost  of  collection. 

It  is  not  advocated  that  these  should  be  equal,  as  the  purpose  of 
county  aid  is  not  to  equalize  total  amounts,  but  to  equalize  tax 
burdens  and  educational  opportunities.  In  a  general  way  the  county 
tax  in  this  county  is  fairly  distributed;  that  is,  those  districts  which 
received  from  the  county  more  than  they  paid  are  usually  the  dis- 
tricts with  the  heaviest  burdens  and  high  levies,  while  those  con- 
tributing more  than  they  received  have  small  local  levies  or  relatively 
small  local  expenditures.  More  specifically  stated,  of  districts  Nos. 
2,  5,  6,  7,  and  9,  which  pay  more  than  they  receive,  No.  2  has  a  special 
levy  of  only  IJ  mills  and  the  others  none.  Of  those  which  receive 
more  than  they  pay,  Nos.  1,  8,  19,  20,  21,  and  23  have  a  special  levy 
of  3  mills  or  more.  If  State  aid  and  local  tax  were  equalized  as  well 
as  county  tax,  in  this  county  at  least,  school  taxation  would  be 
reasonably  fair  to  all  districts.  That  the  State  fund  does  not  tend 
to  equalize  the  expense  of  teaching  is  shown  in  Table  17.     As  will 


REVENUE   FOR   THE   SUPPORT   OF   SCHOOLS.  79 

be  seen  from  that  table,  the  amount  per  teacher  varies  in  this  county 
from  $91i  in  district  6  to  $506  in  district  3;  that  is,  the  State  helps 
one  district  to  the  extent  of  contributing  $§1  a  year  to  the  salary  of 
each  teacher  employed,  and  helps  the  other  district  to  the  extent  of 
contributing  $506  each  year  for  each  teacher  employed. 

In  addition  to  the  discrepancy  aheady  mentioned,  the  amount 
spent  in  the  education  of  each  child  varies  from  $15  in  district 
3  to  $50  in  district  8  (see  Table  16).  Unless  the  money  is  very  well 
managed  in  one  case  and  very  badly  managed  in  another,  the  children 
in  district  8  will  receive  three  times  as  much  in  educational  value  as 
those  in  district  3.  The  amount  spent  per  teacher  (see  Table  16) 
varies  from  $341.50  in  district  10  to  $1,317  in  district  20.  Is  the 
teaching  in  district  20  worth  fom*  times  as  much  as  that  in  district 
10?  What  of  the  children  in  the  50  per  cent  of  the  districts  from 
which  enrollment  and  attendance  statistics  were  not  obtainable  from 
the  county  superintendent,  and  the  investigator  says  '^  probably 
not  from  the  districts  themselves  "  ?  Of  the  total  school  expenditure 
of  the  county  studied,  24.8  per  cent  comes  from  special  district  tax, 
42.4  from  the  county,  and  32.8  from  the  State. 

The  figures  given  show  that  the  district  unit  for  taxation  and 
administration  tends  to  make  very  unequal  burdens  of  taxation  and 
very  unequal  educational  opportunities  for  children.  This  is  not 
true  in  Wyoming  alone;  it  has  been  found  almost  universally  true 
in  States  organized  on  this  basis.  Not  only  is  this  not  an  equitable 
basis  among  rural  districts  themselves,  but  it  usually  causes  a  wide 
discrepancy  in  the  kind  and  amount  of  education  furnished  to  rural 
and  city  children.  An  investigation  recently  made  of  school  taxation 
in  Colorado  shows  that  rm-al  districts  pay  about  half  as  much  in 
local  taxation  as  city  districts.  For  every  dollar  of  special  taxes 
spent  on  a  child  in  the  city  54  cents  is  spent  on  a  child  in  the 
country — this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  wealth  per  capita  is  greater 
in  rural  districts  throughout  the  State  than  in  city  districts.  Indi- 
cations from  data  obtainable  are  that  Wyoming  conditions  are  similar. 

Table  20  shows  special  levy,  school  census,  and  other  data  for  16 
districts  in  the  State  which  maintain  high  schools.  The  special 
tax  rate  in  these  districts  varies  from  2.7  to  10.5  mills,  averaging 
about  5  mills.  This  should  be  contrasted  with  the  levies  in  the  county 
studied  (Table  16),  in  which  the  highest  rate  is  7  mills  and  in  which 
50  per  cent  of  the  districts  have  no  special  levy  whatever.  Generally 
speaking,  cities  pay  higher  school  tax,  better  salaries,  have  better 
buildings  and  equipment,  and  spend  more  per  child  on  education  than 
rural  districts.  Rural  districts  in  the  State  are  not  doing  their  share 
in  levying  special  taxes.  The  16  districts  referred  to  above  enroll 
32  per  cent  of  all  the  children  in  school  in  the  State,  and  they  raise 
41  per  cent  of  all  money  raised  in  the  State  by  special  tax  levies. 


80 


EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMING, 


This  is  not  because  country  districts  are  less  able  to  afford  taxation 
than  city  districts.  Although  detailed  data  for  the  whole  State  are 
not  available,  Table  21  shbws  valuation,  school  census,  and  per  capita 
wealth  for  the  three  largest  cities  in  the  State  and  corresponding  figures 
for  the  other  districts  in  the  counties  in  which  they  are  located,  after 
deducting  census  and  valuation  of  cities  from  the  county  totals. 
Not  only  is  the  w-ealth  per  school  child  greater  in  each  case  in  the 
county  than  in  the  city,  but  the  combined  valuation  is  such  that 
rural  districts  could  afford  to  provide  not  only  elementary  education, 
but  high-school  education  as  well,  without  increasing  the  tax  rate 
above  the  average  city  rate  (this  estimate  is  made  on  a  basis  of  a 
5-mill  levy,  and  presupposes  some  assistance  from  the  State  and 
county  on  the  per  capita  teacher  basis).  While  the  conditions  shown 
in  this  table  may  not  hold  in  exactly  the  same  way  throughout  the 
State,  it  illustrates  the  fact  that  a  change  in  present  methods  of 
taxation  is  necessary  if  an  equitable  adjustment  is  to  be  accomplished 
and  adequate  educational  facilities,  including  high  schools,  are  to  be 
furnished  to  childi-en  in  the  rural  districts. 

Table  20. — School  census,  valimtion,  and  special  taxes  in  school  districts  in  which  cities 
with  high  schools  are  located.^ 


Cities. 


Counties. 


School 

census. 


Amount 

Tax  prop- 

raised by 

erty 

special 

valuation. 

'Shr 

$10,260,138 

$10.31 

7,732,150 

17.01 

5,477,339 

21,79 

3,267,481 

11.28 

4,313,674 

14.80 

3,505,217 

13.78 

3,924,991 

25.08 

871,638 

19.64 

1,526,436 

13.60 

479,886 

9.19 

1,482,527 

25.79 

1,201,894 

15.09 

401,687 

7.62 

1,305,581 

14.85 

1,319,957 

34.08 

1,147,095 

24.29 

Special 
district 
tax.  in 
mills. 


Cheyenne 

Sheridan 

Laramie 

Kemmerer... 
Newcastle... 

Evanston 

Rawlins 

Powell 

Lander 

Lovell 

Cody 

Lusk 

Cowley 

Basin 

GiUette 

Thermopolis. 


Laramie 

Sheridan 

Albany 

Lincoln 

Weston 

Uinta 

Carbon 

Park 

Fremont 

Big  Horn. .. 

Park 

Niobrara 

Big  Horn... 

do 

Campbell. .. 
Hot  Springs. 


2,718 

2,272 

1,371 

1,013 

1,013 

890 

532 

498 

453 

444 

345 

318 

316 

273 

.  252 

241 


2.73 
5.00 
5.45 
3.50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.40 
10.50 
4.10 
8.50 
6.00 
4.00 
6.00 
3.10 
6.50 
5.10 


1  Incomplete  information  prevented  the  giving  of  all.    The  average  amount  raised  by  special  tax  in  the 
cities  of  the  State  is  $17.35  per  child.    The  average  special  tax  rate  is  4.95  mills. 

Table  21. —  Valuation  and  census  for  the  given  cities. 


Valuation. 


School 
census. 


Per 

capita 

wealth.  1 


Laramie  County  (Cheyenne  city  excluded) 

Cheyenne  (city  of) 

Albany  County  (Laramie  city  excluded) 

Laramie  (city  of) 

Sheridan  County  (Sheridan  city  excluded) 

Sheridan  (city  oO 

State  as  a  whole  (16  cities  excluded) 

Sixteen  cities  mamtaining  high  schools 

*  On  the  basis  of  school  population 


$13,177,566 
10,260,138 
9,205,924 
5,477,339 
11,438,792 
7,732,150 
163,292,519 
48,217,691 


1,429 

2,718 

678 

1,371 

1,829 

2,272 

26,635 

12,949 


$9,221 
3,513 

13,578 
3,994 
6,254 
3,403 
6,137 
3,723 


EEVENUE   FOR  THE   SUPPORT  OF   SCHOOLS.  81 

It  is  true  that  while  an  apportionment  on  per  capita  basis  works 
a  hardship  on  the  rural  districts,  apportionment  on  a  per  teacher 
basis  is  a  hardship  on  the  cities.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  a  con- 
sideration of  number  of  teachers,  plus  aggregate  daily  attendance, 
is  usually  fairer  to  all  concerned.  However,  the  country  usually 
contributes  to  the  taxable  wealth  of  cities  in  such  a  way  that  the 
cities  can  ajfford  to  make  some  recompense.  For  example,  most  of 
the  cities  in  Wyoming  would  not  be  favored  with  railroad  terminals 
and  shops,  sugar-beet  factories,  and  other  taxable  corporation  prop- 
erty were  it  not  for  the  industry  of  the  people  in  the  surroimding 
rural  districts.  Therefore,  the  country  districts  may  justly  par- 
take of  some  of  the  benefits  coming  from  a  tax  on  these  corpora- 
tion properties.  Moreover,  under  the  existing  system,  the  injustice 
done  cities  through  the  county  method  of  distribution  is  largely 
compensated  by  the  State  method  of  distribution.  Let  us  take, 
for  example,  the  actual  situation  in  the  three  largest  cities  of  the 
State,  Cheyenne,  Sheridan,  and  Laramie.  According  to  the  report 
of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  city  of  Cheyenne,  the  city  received 
from  the  county  general  tax  $18,000  and  paid  into  the  county  fund 
$31,000,  an  excess  of  about  $13,000  in  favor  of  the  rural  districts. 
Cheyenne  received  from  the  State  $22,800,  the  remainder  of  the 
county  $12,000,  an  excess  over  the  rural  districts  of  about  $10,800 
in  favor  of  the  city.  While  these  funds  do  not  exactly  balance 
in  amount,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  city  of  Cheyenne, 
employing  40  teachers  for  its  elementary  schools,  receives  from  the 
State  an  amount  equal  to  approximately  $570  ^  for  each  elemen- 
tary teacher  employed,  in  addition  to  $300  from  the  county  fund, 
while  the  rural  schools  in  Laramie  County,  employing  104  teachers 
in  elementary  schools,  receive  only  $115  from  the  State  for  each 
teacher,  in  addition  to  $300  from  the  county.  Since  the  true  expense 
of  maintaining  schools  is  based  on  the  number  of  teachers  necessary 
rather  than  on  the  number  of  children  attending,  the  cities  really 
receive  from  the  State  and  county  combined  more  aid  in  proportion 
to  their  needs  than  rural  districts.^ 

The  city  of  Laramie  receives  from  the  State  $11,500,  an  amount 
equal  to  approximately  $575  for  each  of  20  teachers  employed  in 
the  elementary  schools  and  the  junior  high  school,  in  addition  to 
$300  per  teacher  from  the  county  fund.  The  rural  schools  receive 
^rom  the  State  only  $5,695  for  52  teachers  in  elementary  schools,  or 
about  $109  per  teacher,  in  addition  to  $300  from  the  county.  The 
city  of  Laramie  pays  into  the  county  fund  about  $11,000  and  re- 
ceives therefrom  about  $9,000.     Here  again  this  excess  of  $2,000 

1  If  high-school  teachers,  special  supervisors,  and  the  city  superintendent  are  Included,  the  amount 
received  would  be  $428  for  each.  High  schools  are  omitted  in  the  calculation  because  the  country  districts 
have  no  high  schools. 

57460°— 17 6 


82  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF   WYOMING. 

paid  to  the  county  is  more  than  balanced  by  the  excess  received 
from  the  State  ($5,808). 

The  city  of  Sheridan  receives  from  the  county  fund  $13,500  and 
pays  into  the  same  fund  $6,495.  The  country  districts  therefore, 
through  county  tax  as  well  as  the  State  through  apportionment, 
are  helping  the  district  of  Sheridan  to  maintain  its  schools.  (These 
figures  are  only  approximately  correct,  because  actual  statistics 
were  not  available.  Those  given  are  obtained  by  multiplying  valua- 
tion by  tax  levy  in  mills  in  the  one  case  and  multiplying  census  by 
$8.39 — the  State  per  capita  apportionment — in  the  other.  They 
do  not  allow  for  uncollected  taxes  and  the  expense  of  collection. 
They  are,  however,  nearly  correct,  the  proportions  are  right,  and 
the  conclusions  are  practically  true.) 

One  important  consideration  in  the  whole  question  of  the  sup- 
port of  education  is  the  method  of  bookkeeping  in  the  various  school 
units.  Each  board  at  present  elects  one  of  its  members  treasurer. 
He  keeps  the  board's  accounts  in  his  own  way,  although  a  special 
clerk's  and  treasurer's  record  book  is  recommended  by  the  State  super- 
intendent. Each  board  may  audit  its  treasurer's  accounts  if  it  sees 
fit  to  do  so,  or  the  district  may  vote  an  audit.  No  other  agency  has 
power,  however,  to  examine  the  records  of  the  treasurer.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  very  few  accounts  are  ever  audited  and  information  con- 
cerning them  is  difiicult  to  obtain.  It  was  obtained  for  this  report 
in  relatively  few  cases.  Instances  similar  to  the  following  are  re- 
ported as  common  by  the  county  superintendents.  One  district  in  re- 
porting to  the  county  superintendent  shows  a  balance  on  hand  at  the 
beguming  of  the  fiscal  year,  May  1,  1915,  of  more  than  $500  less  than 
the  balance  on  hand  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  year  as  given  in 
the  preceding  annual  report.  On  one  report  from  a  large  district 
the  balance  on  hand  at  the  close  of  the  year  was  approximately 
$5,000  less  than  the  difference  between  the  expenditures  and  the 
receipts  for  the  year  including  balance  brought  over  from  preceding 
year. 

An  inquiry  was  sent  to  the  clerks  of  359  boards  asking  for  definite 
information  of  their  accounting  systems  and  of  the  general  conduct 
of  the  business  side  of  their  work.  The  answers  received  were  in 
nearly  all  cases  vague,  indicating  very  clearly  the  decided  need  of 
more  businesslike  methods  of  handling  school  funds  and  accurate^ 
methods  of  bookkeeping.  It  is  recommended  in  another  section  that 
all  school  f imds  be  left  in  the  county  treasury,  credited  to  the  various 
districts,  and  paid  out  by  the  treasurer  on  warrants  signed  by  two 
members  of  any  board.  The  coimty  treasurer  thus  acts  as  a  banker 
for  the  funds,  and  his  accounts  with  the  individual  districts  necessarily 
show  the  expenditures  of  the  districts  and  the  purposes  for  which 
made. 


r\^.  MOVEMENTS   IN   OTHER    STATES  AS    OUTLINED    IN 
RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  WYOMING.* 

State  administration. — In  Wyoming,  as  in  older  States,  there  is  a 
growing  feeling  that  the  State  must  assmne  more  and  better  super- 
vision over  the  pubUc  schools,  so  that  the  State  school  funds  shall  be 
expended  in  the  best  possible  way.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  State 
should  attempt  to  administer  the  entire  school  system  in  all  of  its 
details  from  a  central  office.  There  is  always  a  tendency  toward  a 
mechanical  system  in  school  affairs  when  a  central  office  has  a  large 
amount  of  detail  administrative  work  to  handle.  County  manage- 
ment and  a  certain  amount  of  local  district  management  are  desir- 
able for  this  and  other  reasons  of  even  more  importance.  However, 
there  should  be  enough  control  from  the  State  to  assure  that  each 
local  unit  provides  satisfactory  education  for  its  children  and  expends 
the  State  funds  wisely. 

As  the  population  of  a  State  increases,  with  the  resulting  growth 
in  the  school  system,  and  as  the  work  of  education  becomes  more 
and  more  complex,  the  need  of  well-organized  State  leadership  be- 
comes greater.  A  State  should  estabUsh  a  general  educational  poHcy 
and  provide  means  for  carrying  it  out  consistently.  To  do  this  the 
leadership  must  be  continuous.  Older  States  than  Wyoming  have 
provided  continuous  leadership  by  creating  a  nonpoUtical,  con- 
tinuing State  board  of  education  and  a  State  department  of  educa- 
tion under  the  immediate  management  of  a  professionally  qualified 
State  superintendent  of  education  selected  by  the  board.  In  37 
of  the  48  States  of  the  Union  there  are  such  boards  with  functions 
relative  to  the  pubUc  schools.  In  15  of  the  States  the  State  super- 
intendents of  pubhc  instruction  are  appointed  officers,  not  affiUated 
with  pohtics  nor  with  political  parties.  ' 

The  composition  of  the  State  boards  of  education  varies  greatly 
in  different  States.  In  eight  States  the  boards  are  made  up  ex 
officio  of  State  officers,  usually  including  the  governor,  the  super- 
intendent of  pubhc  instruction,  and  one  or  more  other  State  officers. 
Such  boards  have  shown  themselves  to  be  of  relatively  little  value. 
In  10  other  States  the  boards  are  composed  of  ex  officio  members  and 
members  appointed  at  discretion  by  the  governor.  In  several  States 
the  boards  are  made  up  ex  officio  of  persons  engaged  in  education. 
Neither  plan  gives  a  wholly  satisfactory  board.     The  drift  is  toward 

1  This  section  was  prepared  and  included  at  the  request  of  members  of  the  State  School  Code  Com- 
mittee.—A.  C.  M. 

83 


84  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMING. 

the  board  appointed  by  the  governor  and  composed  of  broad-minded 
men  and  women  of  affairs  who  may  or  may  not  be  engaged  in  edu- 
cational work,  but  who  are  particularly  adapted  to  the  position  in 
personaUty  and  experience.  The  recent  change  to  State  boards  of 
this  type  in  Vermont  and  California  is  an  indication  of  the  trend. 
Appointment  of  the  board  by  the  governor  has  a  twofold  merit: 

(1)  It  recognizes  the  executive  head  of  the  State  as  responsible 
to  the  people  for  the  efficiency  of  every  department  of  public  serv- 
ice; it  tends  to  make  the  board  responsible  to  the  pubUc. 

(2)  It  centers  responsibiUty  where  it  can  be  definitely  located, 
as  can  not  be  done  where  the  board  is  elected  by  the  legislature  or 
by  the  people. 

The  size  of  the  board,  the  term  of  office,  and  mode  of  retiring 
are  all  important  factors.  The  board  should  be  large  enough  so  that 
a  death  or  resignation  occurring  at  the  time  of  the  expiration  of 
the  term  of  any  of  its  members  would  not  change  the  majority 
of  the  board;  and  the  term  of  office  should  be  long  enough,  with 
not  over  one-fifth  expiring  any  year,  so  that  the  board  may  be 
continuous.  A  board  of  seven  or  eight  members,  holding  office  from 
six  to  nine  years,  with  one  term  expiring  each  year  or  two  terms 
each  biennium,  fulfills  these  conditions.  Such  a  board  would  guaran- 
tee that  degree  of  continuity  in  service  without  which  no  business 
can  be  successfully  administered,  and  it  could  not  be  changed  to 
satisfy  the  caprice  of  any  individual  or  to  meet  the  political  needs 
of  any  State  administration.  A  larger  board  means  additional  ex- 
pense to  the  State,  additional  difficulty  in  determining  poUcies,  and 
difficulty  in  securing  a  quorum  to  do  ordinary  routine  business.  The 
best  boards  are  those  whose  members  serve  without  pay  except  for 
necessary  expenses  incurred  in  conducting  the  business  of  the  board. 

The  preference  in  the  various  States  seems  to  be  for  a  State 
board  with  duties  and  powers  which  make  it  responsible  for  the 
efficiency  of  the  whole  State  elementary  and  secondary  systems. 
The  duties  and  powers  actually  given  vary  all  the  way  from  almost 
no  control  to  almost  complete  control  of  the  pubUc  schools.  The 
consensus  of  opinion  in  the  United  States  seems  to  be  that  the 
board  should  have  definite  functions  concerning  the  regular  pubHc 
schools  of  elementary  and  secondary  grade,  advisory  control  of  all 
special  schools  of  elementary  or  secondary  grade,  such  as  schools  for 
the  education  of  delinquents  or  of  the  blind  and  deaf,  and  of  special 
State  vocational  schools;  also  control  of  the  preparation  and  certifi- 
cation of  teachers  for  the  pubHc  schools.  Otherwise  its  poUcies  in 
regard  to  school  management  can  be  carried  out  only  with  difficulty. 

Between  the  State  board  of  education  and  the  State  superin- 
tendent there  need  be  no  clash.  The  functions  of  the  board,  apart 
from   appointing  the  superintendent,   and   therefore   approving  or 


MOVEMENTS  IN  OTHER  STATES.  85 

disapproving  his  acts,  should  be  largely  legislative  and  advisory. 
When  it  has  determined  upon  a  general  policy  or  a  particular  action 
to  be  put  into  immediate  operation,  the  execution  should  be  left  to 
the  superintendent  as  executive  officer.  Such  assistants  as  may  be 
necessary  to  enable  the  superintendent  to  carry  out  his  work  should 
be  selected  by  him,  final  appointment  resting  in  the  board.  The  board 
in  reaUty  passes  upon  his  use  of  the  selective  power  to  obtain  the 
right  kind  of  persons  rather  than  upon  the  persons  themselves.  This 
power  of  the  board  prevents  a  new  superintendent  from  appointing 
a  new  set  of  assistants  if  those  already  employed  are  doing  satisfactory 
work. 

The  State  department  of  education,  to  be  effective,  must  com- 
mand the  respect  of  local  school  officers  and  teachers  and  it  must 
have  legal  authority  to  require  that  legislation  relative  to  education 
be  observed."  To  secure  these  conditions  there  must  be  a  chief  State 
school  officer  of  high  standing  in  educational  work  retained  in  office 
as  long  as  satisfactory  services  are  rendered;  an  officer  who,  with  his 
assistants,  by  visiting  all  parts  of  the  State  and  coming  into  contact 
with  school  authorities  and  schools,  will  know  at  first-hand  the  use 
made  of  State  funds  and  the  kind  of  educational  opportunities  offered. 

The  size  of  the  State  departments  in  the  various  States  measured 
in  terms  of  the  number  of  employees  varies  from  2  in  Delaware — a 
commissioner  of  education  and  a  stenographer — to  nearly  400  in 
New  York — a  commissioner,  3  assistant  commissioners,  20  chiefs  of 
division,  17  field  inspectors,  and  over  300  clerks,  all  housed  in  a 
special  State  education  building. 

Wyoming  stands  next  to  Delaware  in  the  size  of  its  department, 
with  a  State  superintendent,  one  deputy,  and  three  clerks,  at  least 
one-half  of  the  time  of  the  office  force  being  required  for  the  work 
of  the  State  board  of  charities  and  reforms  and  the  land  board.  The 
size  of  the  departments  in  a  few  other  States  with  systems  not  highly 
centralized  is  given  below: 

Alabama  employs  a  superintendent,  a  deputy  superintendent,  a 
chief  examiner  for  certification  of  teachers,  four  field  agents,  and 
seven  clerks. 

California  employs  a  superintendent,  a  deputy,  a  statistician,  a 
conmaissioner  of  secondary  schools,  a  commissioner  of  elementary 
schools,  a  commissioner  of  industrial  schools,  and  eight  clerks. 

Indiana  employs  a  superintendent,  an  assistant  superintendent,  a 
deputy  superintendent,  four  field  agents,  head  of  a  manuscript  depart- 
ment, and  five  clerks. 

Massachusetts  employs  a  commissioner  of  education,  2  deputy 
commissioners,  8  field  agents,  and  12  clerks. 

Minnesota  employs  a  superintendent,  two  assistant  superintend- 
ents, a  director  of  the  teachers'  employment  bureau,  six  field  agents, 


86  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF' WYOMING. 

and  several  office  clerks.  The  six  field  agents  are  an  inspector  of 
high  schools,  an  inspector  of  graded  schools,  a  supervisor  of  teacher- 
training  schools,  a  commissioner  of  rural  schools,  a  commissioner  of 
school  buildings,  and  a  conunissioner  of  school  libraries. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  the  Wyoming  State  department  is  also 
less  than  any  other  except  Delaware.  The  State  superintendent  is 
paid  $3,000  a  year,  which  is  the  same  salary  as  paid  to  16  other 
State  superintendents.  In  23  States  larger  salaries  are  paid,  2  pay- 
ing $10,000  a  year.  The  salaries  in  8  are  less  than  those  in  Wyoming. 
None,  however,  pays  its  deputy  superintendent  so  little. 

Nonpolitical  officers. — To  give  the  office  the  standing  that  it 
should  have,  so  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  leading  authority  on 
school  affairs  in  the  State,  it  must  be  made  nonpolitical,  with  its 
head  no  longer  identified  with  party  politics.  So  long  as  the  people 
look  upon  it  as  a  political  office,  they  will  not  turn  to  it  for  advice 
in  educational  matters.  In  15  States  the  chief  school  officer  is  now 
appouited;  imdoubtedly  in  many  others  a  change  would  have  been 
made  before  this  time  if  a  constitutional  amendment  were  not  re- 
quired to  make  the  change.  In  the  States  where  the  State  super- 
iQtendents  are  appouited,  they  may  be  selected  from  the  country  at 
large,  in  most  instances  paid  whatever  salary  is  necessary  to  get  the 
best  person  obtainable,  and  retained  in  service  as  long  as  the  work  is 
effective.  Of  the  23  States  payuig  greater  salaries  than  Wyoming, 
the  State  superintendents  are  appouited  in.  12. 

In  several  of  the  States  with  appointive  State  superintendents  the 
selection  and  appointment  is  made  by  the  governor.  Tliere  are 
several  objections  to  this  method,  and  two  States — Tennessee  and 
Maryland — ^have  since  1914  abandoned  it  and  vested  the  appoint- 
ment in  the  State  board.  If  the  State  board  is  to  be  made  respon- 
sible for  the  State's  educational  business,  it  would  seem  that  it  ought 
to  have  the  selection  of  its  own  executive  officer,  particularly  as  when 
the  appointment  is  by  the  governor  there  is  a  tendency  to  make  the 
office  a  political  one  and  to  subject  it  to  the  fluctuations  of  party  and 
factional  politics. 

The  length  of  service  of  the  State  superintendent  iq  Wyoming  and 
in  a  few  States  where  appointive  officers  are  found  is  given  below. 
Wyoming  has  not,  of  course,  had  as  many  changes  as  many  other 
States  where  the  State  superintendent  is  elected  for  a  two-year 
term  instead  of  a  four-year  term.  Since  1890,  when  Wyoming 
became  a  State,  there  have  been  nine  superintendents,  including  the 
present  officer,  who  began  service  in  1915.  Six  of  these  served  one 
term  of  four  years  each,  one  served  two  terms  or  eight  years,  two 
served  two  years  each.  Of  the  following  six  States  in  which  the  State 
superintendents  are  appointed,  terms  have  been  as  follows : 

Pennsylvania  has  had  one  superintendent  contipuously  since  1893. 


MOVEMENTS  IN   OTHER  STATES.  87 

Vermont  liad  three  superintendents  from  1892  to  July  1,  1916; 
the  third  served  16  years. 

Maryland  has  had  its  present  superintendent  since  1900. 

Massachusetts  had  four  superintendents  or  commissioners  between 
1890  and  1916,  the  first  serving  4  years,  the  second  10,  the  third  5, 
and  the  fourth  7  years. 

New  Jersey  has  had  three  since  1892;  the  first  served  4  years,  the 
second  15  years,  the  third  since  his  appointment  in  1911. 

What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  making  the  ofiice  of  the  State 
superintendent  appointive  applies  equally  as  well  to  the  oflB.ce  of 
county  superintendent.  This  is  quite  generally  appreciated,  and 
considerable  activity  is  evident  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  to 
bring  this  condition  about.  In  23  States  the  rural  superintendents 
are  now  appointed,  in  the  other  25  they  are  still  elected. 

The  rural  superintendents  of  New  England  are  township  or  union 
district  officers  and  are  appointed,  except  in  Vermont,  by  the  'Hown 
school  committees"  for  whom  they  work.  In  Vermont  they  are 
selected  and  appointed  by  the  State  board  of  education.  In  New 
York  the  rural  superintendents  are  appointed  by  a  board  composed 
of  two  persons  elected  from  each  township  in  the  supervisory  district; 
in  Virginia,  by  the  State  board  of  education.  Rural  supervision  in 
Nevada  is  under  five  deputy  State  superintendents  appointed  by 
the  State  board  of  education.  The  county  superintendents  of  Dela- 
ware are  appointed  by  the  governor;  those  of  New  Jersey  by  the 
State  commissioner  of  education;  those  of  Alabama,  Indiana, 
Louisiana,  North  Carolina,  Ohio,  Utah,  and  part  of  those  in  Georgia 
by  the  county  boards  of  education;  those  of  Tennessee  by  the  county 
court;  and  those  of  Pennsylvania,  Iowa,  and  Indiana  by  a  county 
meeting  of  school  officers  representing  the  townships  in  the  county. 
The  consensus  of  opinion  seems  to  be  very  strongly  in  favor  of  the 
appointment  by  a  county  board  of  education  representing  the  people 
of  the  county.  The  superintendent  should  be  selected  from  within 
or  without  the  county  for  special  fitness  and  retained  as  long  as  the 
services  rendered  are  satisfactory.  A  study  of  the  rural  superintend- 
ents and  the  length  of  the  terms  of  service  and  their  education,  train- 
ing, and  experience,  recently  made  in  the  Bureau  of  Education,  shows 
that  the  term  of  service  in  the  States  in  which  they  are  appointed 
is  much  longer  than  in  the  States  in  which  they  are  elected,  and  that 
men  and  women  with  more  general  education  and  teaching  experience 
are  selected  than  when  the  superintendents  are  elected  by  popular 
vote.  For  instance,  among  the  appointed  county  superintendents, 
36  per  cent  are  serving  their  first  term,  29  per  cent  their  second  term, 
and  35  per  cent  their  third  or  more  than  the  third  term.  Among 
the  elected  superintendents  52  per  cent  are  serving  their  first  term, 
28  per  cent  their  second  term,  and  19  per  cent  their  third  term.     This 


88     '  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMING. 

omits  the  rural  superintendents  of  New  England,  many  of  whom 
have  served  many  years,  the  district  superintendents  of  New  York, 
and  also  the  coimty  superintendents  of  Ohio,  who  on  account  of  the 
change  in  the  State  school  code  are  all  serving  their  first  term.  As 
to  education,  approximately  83  per  cent  of  the  superintendents  in 
New  England  have  had  four  years  of  college  education,  requiring 
four  years  of  high  school  for  entrance,  and  an  additional  1 2  per  cent 
have  had  at  least  two  years  of  college  work.  All  have  had  at  least  a 
complete  high-school  course,  only  3  per  cent  having  no  college  work. 
In  New  York  State  32  per  cent  have  had  complete  college  education 
and  an  additional  50  per  cent  have  had  from  one  to  three  years  of 
college.  Among  the  county  superintendents  appointed  in  various 
ways  1.7  per  cent  have  had  elementary  education  only,  while  among 
those  elected  by  the  people  for  four-year  terms  9.1  per  cent  have  had 
elementary  education  only,  and  those  elected  for  two-year  terms  6.6 
per  cent.  Among  the  appointed  superintendents  44  per  cent  have 
had  full  standard  college  education  and  32  per  cent  from  one  to  three 
years  of  college  work;  among  those  elected  for  four  years  12  per  cent 
are  college  graduates  and  38  per  cent  have  had  from  one  to  three 
years;  among  those  elected  for  two-year  terms  17  per  cent  are  col- 
lege graduates  and  33  per  cent  have  had  from  one  to  three  years  of 
college  work. 

Supervision. — Throughout  the  United  States  there  is  a  growing 
feeUng  that  the  county  superintendent  of  schools  should  be  a  man 
or  woman  of  training  and  experience  and  should  be  assisted  by  a 
competent  corps  of  supervisors.  Many  States  are  now  making  pro- 
vision for  these  supervisors. 

In  the  New  England  States  the  supervisory  district  is  always 
smaU,  being  composed  of  from  one  to  five  townships,  employing  as  a 
rule  40  to  50  teachers.  In  New  York  the  average  supervisory  dis- 
trict is  one-fourth  of  the  county,  or  approximately  200  square  miles 
of  territory.  In  several  States,  such  as  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin, 
and  others,  counties  with  more  than  a  fixed  number  of  teachers  are 
required  to  employ  assistant  superintendents.  In  Ohio,  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  Oregon  counties  are  divided  into  supervisory  districts,  and 
special  supervisors  as  assistants  to  the  county  superintendents  are 
employed  in  each  district.  This  is  a  mandatory  law  in  Ohio,  the  88 
county  superintendents  being  assisted  by  approximately  500  district 
superintendents.  In  West  Virginia  it  is  a  permissive  law,  but  has 
proved  so  successful  that  practically  one-half  of  the  teachers  in  the 
State  are  teaching  in  districts  supervised  by  district  superintendents 
under  the  general  oversight  of  the  county  superintendent.  The 
supervisory  system  of  Oregon  is,  all  things  being  considered,  probably 
better  suited  for  Wyoming  than  the  others  mentioned. 


MOVEMENTS  IK   OTHEK   STATES.  89 

Oregon  in  1911  passed  an  act  providing  for  compulsory  supervision. 
It  required  the  county  superintendent  in  every  county  with  60  or 
more  school  districts  to  appoint  a  county  board  of  education,  to  be 
composed  of  four  persons  and  the  county  superintendent.  The  major- 
ity of  rural  districts  in  Oregon  contain  but  one  school.  This  board 
was  required  to  divide  the  county  into  supervisory  districts,  each  to 
contain  from  20  to  50  school  districts  (practically  20  to  50  teachers), 
and  to  appoint  a  district  supervisor  for  each  district  so  created.  The 
district  supervisors  are  required  to  devote  their  entire  time  to  super- 
vision for  at  least  10  months  in  each  year.  They  are  county  officers, 
responsible  to  the  counties  through  the  county  superintendents,  and 
are  paid  by  the  county.  The  county  superintendent  of  schools  may 
be  supervisor  of  one  of  these  districts.  If  a  similar  plan  be  adopted 
in  Wyoming,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  the  county  superin- 
tendent could  not  receive  special  pay  for  his  services  as  supervisor  of 
one  of  the  supervisory  districts  until  such  time  as  a  constitutional 
amendment  can  be  adopted  making  possible  more  adequate  salaries 
than  are  now  fixed  by  the  constitution.  Wyoming  would  require 
approximately  40  supervisors;  the  minimima  salary  should  be  $1,000, 
half  of  which  should  be  paid  by  the  State.  The  State  would  then 
be  in  a  position  to  see  that  proper  persons  are  appointed  and  to 
control  their  work  sufficiently  to  assure  satisfactory  service.  The 
district  superintendents  of  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Vermont,  Con- 
necticut, and  New  York  receive  part  or  all  of  their  salaries  from  the 
State;  the  county  superintendents  of  New  Jersey  are  paid  by  the 
State ;  those  of  Tennessee  and  Ohio  receive  part  of  their  salary  from 
the  State;  the  assistant  superintendents  of  Pennsylvania  are  paid 
from  State  funds.     This  indicates  the  trend. 

In  West  Virginia  many  of  the  district  superintendents  who  happen 
to  be  quaUfied  for  the  work  have  been  made  organizers  of  boys'  and 
girls'  agricultural  and  canning  clubs,  devoting  part  of  their  time  to 
the  work,  particularly  during  the  summer  months,  and  are  paid  for 
this  by  the  State  agricultural  college.  The  result  has  been  very 
satisfactory,  in  that  it  has  made  the  club  work  a  definite  part  of  the 
regular  school  work,  so  that  full  advantage  may  be  taken  of  it  in  the 
work  of  the  school. 

Organization  for  local  administration. — ^Three  distinct  rural  school 
imits  of  organization  are  found  in  the  United  States — the  district, 
the  township,  and  the  county.  In  addition,  there  are  several  instances 
of  mixed  systems,  in  which  the  responsibihty  for  management  is 
divided  between  the  district  and  the  township,  the  district  and  the 
county,  or  the  township  and  the  county.  There  is  also  some  variety 
in  the  details  of  the  township  systems  and  much  variety  in  those  of 
the  county  systems. 


90  EDUCATIONAL  SUEVEY  OF   WYOMING. 

The  district  system  was  adopted  in  practically  all  States  in  tlie 
early  days  of  settlement  and  was  probably  the  only  system  possible 
when  the  population  was  grouped  in  a  comparatively  few  settlements 
scattered  over  a  large  section  of  country.  With  the  increase  of  pop- 
ulation it  is  passing  away,  being  replaced  by  the  township  or  the 
county  system.  Indiana,  in  1852,  was  probably  the  first  State  to 
give  it  up. 

Long  before  the  abolishing  of  the  district  system  in  States  which 
have  adopted  the  township  or  county  system,  and  in  States  which  still 
have  the  district  system,  its  weaknesses  became  apparent  to  those 
seeing  the  product  of  the  system  from  the  standpoint  of  the  State, 
and  State  laws  have  been  passed  taking  away  from  the  local  districts 
many  of  the  powers  and  privileges  formerly  left  with  them.  The 
requirement  that  none  but  State  certified  teachers  be  employed,  that 
approved  textbooks  be  purchased,  that  a  State  course  of  study  be 
used,  that  certain  sanitary  measures  be  taken,  are  a  few  instances  of 
this. 

The  township  system  prevails  in  New  England  and  in  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  and  parts  of  Michigan,  North  Dakota,  and 
Iowa.  It  is  particularly  satisfactory  in  the  States  where  the  town- 
ship is  the  principal  unit  for  civil  government,  and  not  so  satisfactory 
in  others.  For  Wyoming  and  practically  all  of  the  West  it  would 
not  be  satisfactory  for  school  administration. 

Either  the  county  or  semicounty  system,  where  the  responsibihty 
for  the  management  is  divided  between  the  county  or  township  and 
district,  is  found  in  18  States.  Maryland  adopted  the  county  system 
in  1865,  the  other  States  since  that  time.  In  the  straight  county 
system,  such  as  Utah,  Tennessee,  etc.,  the  schools  of  the  county, 
except  those  in  independent  cities,  are  under  the  management  of  a 
single  board  and  are  supported  by  State  and  county  funds  expended 
by  the  board  for  schools  in  different  parts  of  the  county  according 
to  their  needs.  In  other  words,  the  schools  of  the  county  are  handled 
by  a  single  board  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  are  the  schools  of  any 
large  city  system.  The  superiatendent  is  appouited  by  the  board 
and  is  its  executive  officer.  As  a  rule,  local  trustees  are  appointed 
by  the  board  or  elected  by  the  patrons  of  each  school  to  act  as  cus- 
todians of  the  building  and  to  represent  the  people  before  the  county 
board.  Under  the  system,  the  location  of  the  schools  is  determined 
by  the  county  board;  usually,  however,  the  territory  in  the  county 
is  divided  by  the  board  into  school  districts  as  a  matter  of  convenience, 
so  that  children  may  know  which  school  to  attend,  and  in  some  cases 
the  local  districts  are  allowed  to  levy  and  collect  a  local  tax  to  be  used 
in  supplementing  the  county  funds  in  maintaining  a  better  school 
than  would  be  possible  otherwise. 


MOVEMENTS  IN   OTHER  STATES.  91 

Wyoming,  however,  is  probably  not  yet  ready  to  adopt  a  county 
system,  on  account  of  the  size  of  the  present  counties  and  the  sparse 
population.  A  semicounty  system  would  probably  be  more  effective. 
It  would  seem  advisable  to  provide  in  each  county  by  election  a  con  - 
tinning  county  board  of  education  and  give  to  this  board  the  manage- 
ment of  those  functions  of  education  which  can  be  best  managed  by 
the  larger  unit,  leaving  to  the  local  communities  all  other  functions. 
In  this,  Wyoming  would  be  following  the  example  of  other  States, 
not  only  those  definitely  known  as  county-unit  States,  but  many 
others,  for  there  are  county  educational  boards  of  various  kinds  in 
30  States.  These  include  boards  for  supervisory  purposes,  for  the 
examination  of  teachers,  for  the  selection  of  textbooks,  for  the  con- 
trol of  special  schools,  high  schools,  etc. 

Support  of  schools, — The  best  way  to  raise  and  distribute  funds 
for  the  support  of  pubHo  education  is  by  no  means  definitely 
decided,  and  space  can  not  be  taken  here  for  an  extended  discussion 
of  the  subject.  In  no  two  States  is  there  uniformity.  All  States 
contribute  some  State  fimds  to  public  elementary  and  secondary 
education,  the  amount  varying  from  less  than  1  per  cent  of  the 
total  cost  of  the  schools  in  Massachusetts  to  55  per  cent  of  the  total 
expenditure  for  all  school  purposes  in  Alabama.  The  Massachusetts 
State  funds  are  used  only  for  special  purposes,  such  as  the  payment 
of  the  salaries  of  rural  superintendents,  the  support  of  vocational 
schools,  and  for  assistance  to  the  poorer  towns,  which  have  less  than 
a  fixed  valuation  and  are  raising  by  local  tax  a  specified  amount.  In 
Alabama  all  but  a  small  amount  of  the  State  funds  are  distributed  to 
the  counties  in  proportion  to  the  school  population  and  are  expended 
in  the  counties  by  the  county  boards  in  such  a  way  as  to  assure  as 
nearly  as  possible  equal  educational  opportunities  in  all  parts  of  the 
county.  One- third  of  the  counties  depend  entirely  for  the  support 
of  the  schools  on  the  money  received  from  the  State,  the  other  third 
raise  money  by  county  taxation  to  supplement  the  State  fimd.  Be- 
tween thesa  two  extremes  are  all  sorts  of  variations. 

For  the  local  support  various  States  rely  upon  the  county,  town- 
ship, or  district  as  the  unit  of  taxation — in  many  cases  on  two  dis- 
tinct units.  In  24  States  the  local  tax  is  from  the  county  and 
local  district;  in  10  States  from  the  township;  in  the  others  from  the 
district  only.  The  amount  being  raised  on  the  county  basis  is  con- 
stantly increasing;  for  instance,  the  New  Mexico  Legislature  in  1915 
placed  practically  the  entire  burden  of  support  on  the  county  rather 
than  the  local  district. 


92  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMING. 

The  present  practice  in  the  distribution  of  the  principal  part  of  the 
State  funds  to  the  counties  or  townships  or  local  communities  is  as 
follows: 

32  on  the  basis  of  school  population. 

1  on  the  basis  of  valuation  of  taxable  property. 
5  on  the  basis  of  attendance  of  pupils. 

3  on  the  basis  of  number  of  teachers. 

2  on  the  basis  of  attendance  and  number  of  teachers. 

1  on  the  basis  of  inverse  ratio  of  property  valuation. 

2  on  the  basis  of  number  of  teachers  and  school  population. 
1  on  the  basis  of  number  of  schools  and  school  population. 
1  on  the  basis  of  attendance  and  property  valuation. 

County  funds  are  distributed  to  local  districts  in  many  different 
ways  similar  to  those  stated  above.  In  the  States  with  the  straight 
county  system  the  county  funds  are  expended  by  the  county  boards 
of  education  according  to  the  needs  of  the  individual  schools,  so  that 
there  will  be  furnished  as  nearly  as  possible  equal  educational  oppor- 
tunities in  all  parts  of  the  county.  Township  funds  are  in  practically 
all  cases  expended  in  the  same  way. 

Special  purposes  for  which  State  aid  is  given,  either  in  specified 
amounts  for  the  fulfillment  of  definite  requirements  set  by  legislation 
or  in  varying  amounts  for  special  needs  at  the  discretion  of  the  State 
board  of  education,  are  of  considerable  number,  among  them  being 
the  following: 

(1)  Maintenance  of  school  to  increase  the  length  of  term  or  the  teacher's  salary. 

(2)  Teachers'  salaries  when  qualified  teachers  are  employed. 

(3)  Minimum  salary  in  poor  district. 

(4)  School  libraries. 

(5)  Erecting  schoolhouses. 

(6)  Free  textbooks. 

(7)  Salaries  of  county  and  other  rural  superintendents. 

(8)  Vocational  education. 

(9)  Aiding  schools  for  deaf,  bUnd,  and  crippled  children. 

(10)  Evening  schools. 

(11)  Medical  inspection.  , 

(12)  General  improvement  of  rural  schools. 

(13)  Consolidated  rural  schools. 

(14)  Transportation  of  children. 

(15)  Teachers'  institutes. 

Several  plans  of  distributing  State  funds  will  illustrate  the  problem. 
The  State  school  fund  of  Tennessee  is  33  J  per  cent  of  the  gross  receipts 
of  the  State  for  all  purposes.  This  education  fund  is  divided  as  fol- 
lows: 

Sixty-one  per  cent  is  apportioned  to  the  counties  on  the  basis  of 
school  population  6  to  21  years  of  age. 

Ten  per  cent  is  set  aside,  apportioned  by  the  State  board  to  counties 
which  levy  for  public  school  purposes  a  tax  of  not  less  than  40  cents 
on  each  $100  of  taxable  property  and  a  poll  tax  of  $2  per  poll  to  pay 


MOVEMENTS  IN   OTHER  STATES. 


93 


half  the  salary  of  the  county  superintendents  up  to  a  certain  mini- 
mum/ one-half  the  salary  of  supervisors  employed  as  assistants  to 
county  superintendents,  and  to  assist  the  establishment  of  consoli- 
dated schools  and  transportation  of  pupils.  Any  surplus  is  distrib- 
uted in  the  discretion  of  the  State  board  among  the  counties  according 
to  their  educational  needs. 

Six  per  cent  constitutes  a  high-school  fund  distributed  to  the 
public  county  high  schools  in  proportion  to  ,the  amount  of  money 
received  by  each  from  local  sources. 

One  per  cent  is  used  to  encourage  the  maintenance  of  libraries  in 
public  schools  under  general  rules  and  regulations  of  the  State  board. 

Thirteen  per  cent  is  used  for  the  support  of  the  four  State  normal 
schools. 

Seven  per  cent  for  the  support  of  the  State  university. 

Two  per  cent  for  the  support  of  the  Tennessee  Polytechnic  Institute. 

California  pays  from  the  State  funds  to  each  county  and  city  $250 
for  each  teacher  on  the  basis  of  1  teacher  to  every  35  children  in 
average  daily  attendance.  The  remainder  of  the  fund  is  distributed 
according  to  the  average  daily  attendance.  This  money  and  the 
county  funds  are  then  distributed  to  each  district  in  an  amount 
equal  to  $550  for  each  teacher  employed. 

Missouri  apportions  $50  of  the  State  fund  to  the  districts  for  each 
teacher  employed,  the  rest  on  the  basis  of  the  actual  number  of  days' 
attendance  of  all  pupils,  that  is,  the  aggregate  attendance. 

These  illustrations  are  sufficient  to  show  how  State  funds  are  dis- 
tributed in  other  States  to  help  equaUze  the  burden  of  education. 
If  the  Wyoming  State  funds  were  distributed  on  the  basis  suggested 
in  the  recommendations  (see  p.  101),  each  district  would  receive  $100 
for  each  teacher  employed  and  $166,066  would  be  distributed  in 
proportion  to  the  aggregate  daily  attendance. 

Resources  and  school  support  in  the  various  States. 


Number  of 

Total  value 

Value  of 

Number  of 

men  21 

of  taxable 

property 

adults  for 

years  and 

States. 

property, 

for  each 

each  100 

over  for 

in  millions 

child  5-18 

children 

each  100 

of  dollars 

years  old 

5-18  years 

children 

(1912). 

(1913). 

old  (1910). 

5-18  years 
old  (1910). 

United  States..                 

175,425 

$7,337 

107 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

Maine          .                

1,030 
613 

5,900 
6,300 
9,500 

241 

120 

252 

123 

Vermont 

797 

237 

119 

Massachusetts 

5,753 

7,300. 

246 

116 

Rhode  Island 

893 
2,164 

6,600 
7,900 

231 
231 

111 

Connecticut 

115 

New  York 

21,913 

9,900 

239 

117 

5,362 
14, 137 

8,100 
6,900 

222 

110 

Pennsylvania 

208 

105 

1  All  counties  may  participate  in  this  one  item. 


94  EDUCATIONAL  SUEVEY   OF   WYOMING. 

Resources  and  school  support  in  the  variovs  States — Continued. 


Number  of 

Total  value 

Value  of 

Number  of 

men  21 

States. 

of  taxable 

property 
for  each 

adults  for 
each  100 

years  and 
over  for 

in  millions 

child  5-18 

children 

each  100 

of  dollars 

years  old 

5-18  years 

children 

(1912). 

(1913). 

old  (1910). 

5-18  years 
old  (1910). 

North  Central  Division:                , 

Ohio ^ 

8,552 
4,951 
14,596 
5,169 
4,282 
5,267 
7,437 
5,548 

$7,300 
7,200 

10,000 
7,100 
6,400 
8,900 

12,700 
6,300 

227 

113 
106 
108 
109 
93 
99 
98 
98 

Indiana 

211 

Illinois.          .       ... 

213 

214 
183 
185 

Michigan : 

Minnesota. ...... 

Missouri -... 

195 

North  Dakota     

2,038 
1,331 

10,900 
7,500 

166 
175 

93 
96 

South  Dakota 

Nebraska....           

3,605 
4,394 

10,700 
9,400 

182 

95 

98 

190 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware        .            

294 

5,700 
5,700 
3,400 
5,800 
2,200 
2,500 
2,600 
4,300 
16,369 

215 

107 
94 
74 

2,002 
2,175 
2,180 
1,745 
1  301 

196 

Virginia 

153 

West  Virginia 

161 

84 

North  Carolina 

133 

63 

58 
66 
87 

South  Carolina      .         

124 

Georgia 

2^299 

1,015 

767 

137 
165 

Florida 

District  of  Columbia 

144 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky 

2,152 
1,834 
2,050 
1,306 
2,057 
6,552 
1,758 
4,321 

3,100 
2,700 
2,900 
2,100 
3,800 
5,000 
3,400 
7,300 

160 

79 

152 

74 

138 

67 

Mississippi.              

160 

65 

144 

70 

Texas       

142 

72 

139 

70 

Oklahoma 

145 

78 

Western  Division: 

Montana 

1,113 

12,300 

261 

165 

345 

10,200 
11,100 

269 

179 

C  olorado 

2,286 

231 

125 

502 

4,700 
8,600 

162 

88 

Arizona 

487 

213 

129 

Utah 

735 

6,300 

160 

85 

Nevada 

441 

28,400 

269 

180 

Idaho       •                      

591 

5,900 
10,400 
11,100 

190 

113 

Washington 

3,055 
1,843 

255 

151 

Oregon 

253 

148 

California 

8,023 

15,500 

301 

169 

Teaching  corps. — ^The  amount  of  general  education  and  professional 
training  required  for  teaching  is  being  raised  rapidly  throughout  the 
coxmtry  as  more  and  more  trained  persons  become  available.  Very 
few  cities  in  the  United  States  employ  teachers  who  have  not  had 
the  equivalent  of  a  standard  high-school  course  and  two  years  of 
normal-school  work.  Those  with  less  training  have  found  employ- 
ment in  country  schools.  In  order  to  force  the  employment  of 
better  qualified  teachers  in  rural  districts,  State  laws  have  been 
passed  in  several  States  prohibiting  the  employment  of  persons  with 
less  than  a  specified  amount  of  general  and  professional  education 
after  certain  dates.  Ohio,  for  instance,  in  1913,  enacted  the  follow- 
ing law: 

Unless  said  applicant  is  a  graduate  of  a  college  or  university  of  approved  educa- 
tional standing,  shall  possess  an  amount  of  professional  training  consisting  of  classroom 


MOVEMENTS  IN   OTHER  STATES.  95 

instruction  in  a  recognized  institution  for  the  training  of  teachers,  not  less  than  the 
following:  After  January  1,  1916,  such  applicant  shall  possess  not  less  than  6  weeks 
of  such  instruction;  after  January  1,  1917,  not  less  than  12  weeks  of  such  instruction; 
after  January  1, 1918,  not  less  than  18  weeks  of  such  instruction;  after  January  1, 1919, 
not  less  than  24  weeks  of  such  instruction;  after  January  1,  1920,  not  less  than  30 
weeks  of  such  instruction;  after  January  1,  1921,  not  less  than  one  year  of  such  class- 
room instruction  in  a  recognized  school  for  the  training  of  teachers. 

The  result  was  an  exceedingly  large  attendance  in  the  six-week 
summer  schools  in  the  summer  of  1913  and  succeeding  summers.  It 
may  be  noted  that  the  law  is  such  that  teachers  already  in  service 
may  meet  the  requirements  by  attending  summer  schools  annually 
if  at  the  time  of  the  enactment  of  the  law  they  possessed  less  than 
the  required  amount  of  professional  training.  Several  other  States 
have  passed  similar  laws  with  practically  the  same  result.  Wyoming 
should  pass  such  a  law;  it  would  make  it  necessary  to  estabhsh  several 
sununer  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  State.  These  schools  should 
be  under  the  management  of  the  State  board  of  education,  and  for 
their  support  money  now  used  for  county  institutes  might  be  used, 
attendance  at  siunmer  school  being  substituted  for  the  institutes. 

States  having  continuing  boards  of  education  with  permanent 
administrative  officers  find  that  certification  is  far  more  satisfactory 
when  controlled  by  the  board  than  when  subject  to  the  changes  and 
revisions  which  legislative  control  makes  necessary.  These  States 
award  certificates  on  a  basis  of  education  and  professional  training 
more  often  than  on  success  in  examination.  In  connection  with 
the  certification  departments,  employment  bureaus  are  maintained 
at  relatively  slight  expense.  A  State  employment  bureau  is  a 
saving  to  teachers,  who  now  pay  a  percentage  of  their  annual 
salary  to  a  private  bureau,  and  it  enables  school  authorities  to  get 
impartial  accounts  of  a  teacher's  efficiency.  This  plan  is  in  success- 
ful operation  in  several  States,  notably  Massachusetts  and  Minnesota. 


V.  RECOMMENDATIONS.^ 

As  a  result  of  the  study  of  the  school  system  of  Wyoming  the 
followmg  recommendations  are  offered : 

/.  Provision  for  a  State  Board  of  Education  as  the  responsible 
liead  of  the  educational  system,  the  executive  officer  of  the  hoard  to  he 
the  State  superintendent  of  puhlic  instruction. 

The  board  should  be  composed  of  men  and  women  of  affairs, 
scholarship,  business  ability,  and  broadmindedness,  but  not  neces- 
sarily engaged  in  education;  they  should  be  appointed  from  various 
parts  of  the  State  by  the  governor  with  the  approval  of  the  senate, 
or  elected  by  the  people  at  large.  A  satisfactory  number  of  members 
is  seven,  the  term  of  office  eight  years,  not  more  than  two  terms 
expiring  each  biennium.  In  this  way  a  continuity  of  service  and 
freedom  from  political  interference  may  be  secured.  The  members 
should  serve  without  pay  (or  receive  a  small  per  diem),  but  should 
be  paid  their  actual  traveling  and  other  expenses  in  attending  board 
meetings.  Four  fixed  meetings  should  be  held  each  year  and  pro- 
vision made  for  special  meetings  on  the  call  of  the  governor,  the  State 
superintendent,  or  a  majority  of  the  members. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  the  State  board  of  education  should  be 
clearly  defined  by  law  and  should  include  the  following: 

1.  To  advise  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction  in  the 
duties  conferred  upon  him  by  constitution  or  law. 

2.  To  have  general  charge  of  the  educational  interests  of  the  State,^ 
determining  educational  policies,  particularly  in  organization  and 
administration  and  concerning  the  general  scope  of  the  public-school 
system. 

3.  To  appoint  a  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction  (as 
soon  as  a  constitutional  amendment  permitting  can  be  obtained), 
and  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  State  superintendent  to  appoint 
all  assistants  and  employees  of  the  State  department  of  education; 
to  fix  the  salaries  and  terms  of  office  of  the  State  superintendent 
and  all  assistants;  to  approve  the  appointment  of  all  district  super- 
visors in  the  coimties  as  recommended  below,  who  may  be  paid  in 
whole  or  in  part  from  State  funds. 

1  The  Wyoming  school  code  committee  met  in  Cheyenne  on  July  8,  9,  and  10, 1916,  and  adopted  the 
report  of  the  bureau  as  its  report  and  the  recommendations  of  the  bureau  as  its  recommendations, 
with  certain  exceptions,  all  of  which  are  noted  above  and  in  the  following  pages  as  footnotes.— A.  0.  M. 

2  Without  reference  to  the  State  University,  which  is  not  included  in  this  survey, 

96 


RECOMMENDATIONS.  97 

4.  To  advise  the  regents  of  the  university  relative  to  the  content 
and  administration  of  the  course  of  study  in  the  State  normal  school 
at  the  State  imiversity,  and  to  have  complete  administrative  control 
of  all  other  State  teacher-training  schools  that  may  be  established 
by  the  State. 

5.  To  have  general  oversight  of  vocational  or  other  special  schools 
or  departments  of  schools  receiving  State  aid  or  Federal  or  other 
financial  aid  given  through  the  State,  whether  estabhshed  by  the 
State  or  established  by  local  authorities  and  imder  immediate  local 
control. 

6.  To  control  and  manage  State  institutions  for  the  care  and 
education  of  orphans,  the  deaf  or  blind,  feeble-minded,  or  other 
special  classes  that  may  be  established,  and  to  exercise  general 
oversight  of  any  similar  institutions  established  by  local  communities 
and  under  immediate  local  control  if  they  receive  State  aid. 

7.  To  apportion  the  State  school  funds  to  the  counties  and  to 
enforce  State  laws  and  regulations  by  withholding  from  any  county 
the  pro  rata  share  of  any  school  district  maintaining  a  school  violating 
such  regulations. 

8.  To  approve  the  charters  of  all  higher  education  institutions 
that  may  be  established  in  the  State  and  to  determine  standards  on 
which  degrees  may  be  conferred,  always  under  the  provision  of 
statute  law. 

9.  To  exercise  the  functions,  powers,  and  duties  now  conferred 
upon  the  State  board  of  examiners;  transferring  the  work  to  the 
State  department  of  education  and  providing  assistants,  upon  the 
recommendation  of  the  State  superintendent,  to  correct  and  grade 
examination  papers  and  to  recommend  certification. 

10.  To  maintain  a  State  teachers'  employment  bureau  in  connection 
with  the  certification  division  of  the  State  department  of  education 
to  assist  local  authorities  in  securing  teachers. 

11.  To  approve  the  courses  of  study  prepared  for  the  schools  of  the 
State  by  the  State  superintendent,  and  the  lists  of  textbooks  that  may 
be  used  as  basic  texts  in  public  schools. 

II.  Reorganization  of  the  State  Department  ofPuUic  Instruction. 

The  department  should  be  strengthened  (1 )  by  having  the  functions, 
powers,  and  duties  of  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
clearly  defined  by  legislative  enactment;  (2)  by  relieving  the  State 
superintendent  from  service  as  secretary  of  the  State  board  of 
charities  and  reforms  so  that  practically  his  entire  time  may  be  given 
to  the  school  system;  (3)  by  making  the  position  appointive  instead  of 
elective  (see  p.  83);  (4)  by  adding  to  the  department  at  least  two 
eflB-cient  field  agents  to  act  as  inspectors  of  secondary  schools,  voca- 
tional schools,  and  special  schools  receiving  State  aid,  and  as  advisers 
57460°— 17 7 


98  EDUCATIOlSrAL  SURVEY  OF   WYOMING. 

and  assistants  to  the  State  superintendent  in  the  performance  of  his 
duties;  (5)  by  providing  an  annual  State  appropriation  to  be 
expended  by  the  State  board  of  education  on  the  recommendations 
of  the  State  superintendent  for  assisting  in  paying  the  salaries  of 
district  supervisors  employed  in  the  counties,  and  for  assisting  indus- 
trial and  vocational  education,  and  for  similar  purposes  that  may  be 
authorized  by  law. 

The  powers  and  duties  conferred  by  law  upon  the  State  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction  should  include  the  following: 

1 .  To  supervise  all  educational  work  supported  in  whole  or  in  part 
by  the  State  (the  State  university  excepted)  and  report  thereon  to 
the  board  and  to  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 

2.  To  visit  different  parts  of  the  State  to  assist  educational  work 
and  collect  and  diffuse  information  in  school  affairs. 

3.  To  prepare,  publish,  and  distribute  matter  for  the  promotion  of 
public-school  work. 

4.  To  collect  reports  from  coimty  and  city  superintendents  and 
from  private  institutions,  and  to  prepare  and  publish  a  complete 
report  biennially  on  the  status  of  education  in  the  State  and  an 
annual  statistical  report. 

5.  To  prepare  blank  forms  for  use  by  county  superintendents  in 
collecting  data  from  districts,  forms  for  the  use  of  county  treasurers 
and  district  treasurers  in  keeping  account  of  the  school  receipts  and 
expenditures,  registration  blanks  and  card  records  for  use  in  all 
schools  in  the  State,  forms  to  be  used  in  calling  school  meetings;  and 
all  other  forms  necessary  for  the  use  of  school  officials. 

6.  To  compile  and  pubhsh  the  school  laws  of  the  State. 

7.  To  prepare  courses  of  study  for  the  public  schools  and  to  ap- 
prove courses  of  study  in  all  special  schools  receiving  State  aid. 

8.  To  examine  and  approve  textbooks  and  to  publish  lists  of 
books  which  may  be  used  in  the  State  as  basic  texts  such  lists  having 
first  been  approved  by  the  State  board  of  education. 

9.  To  enforce  State  laws  and  regulations  by  withholding  from  any 
county  the  pro  rata  share  of  any  school  district  maintaining  a  school 
violating  such  regulations  until  the  State  board  of  education  takes 
action. 

10.  To  hold  an  annual  State  teachers'  institute  and  an  annual 
convention  of  county  and  of  city  superintendents,  and  to  approve  the 
program  of  all  regular  county  institutes. 

11.  To  prepare  or  have  prepared  examination  questions  for 
teachers'  certificates;  to  issue  aU  teachers'  certificates. 

12.  To  prepare  and  pubhsh  plans  and  specifications  for  school 
buildings. 

13.  To  interpret  school  laws  and  to  advise  school  officers  and 
teachers  on  all  matters  relative  to  the  conduct  of  the  schools. 


EECOMMENDATIONS.  99 

14.  To  perform  such  duties  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law  and,  as 
executive  officer  of  the  State  board,  to  perform  such  duties  as  the 
board  may  direct. 

///.  Nonpolitical  School  Officers. 

The  State  superintendent  of  pubhc  instruction  and  his  assistants 
should  be  selected  and  appointed  by  the  State  board  of  education, 
and  the  county  superintendents  by  county  boards  of  education  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  method  of  selection  and  appointment  of  city 
superintendents  by  city  boards  of  education  and  of  college  presidents 
by  college  boards  of  trustees. 

These  State  and  county  education  officers  should  be  selected  for 
their  particular  fitness  for  the  positions  to  be  filled,  regardless  of 
whether  or  not  they  are  residents  of  the  State,  or  of  the  county 
which  they  serve.  Appointment  should  be  for  specified  terms  suffi- 
ciently long  to  insm*e  the  most  effective  service,  the  boards  having 
power  to  remove  from  office  for  inefficiency  or  malfeasance.  State 
and  county  officers  so  appointed  would  become  the  actual  heads  of 
the  State  and  county  systems,  fi^t  in  responsibihty  and  opportunity, 
and  able  to  count  on  long  and  definite  terms  of  office  by  rendering 
good  service. 

IV.  Provision  for  Expert  Supervision  of  Rural  Schools. 

Each  county  with  more  than  40  teachers,  not  including  those  in 
supervised  city  systems,  should  be  divided  into  supervisory  districts 
containing  approximately  30  teachers  each,^  and  a  supervisor  for  each 
district  appointed,  whose  entire  time  should  be  devoted  to  the 
supervision  of  the  schools  in  his  district.^  The  salary  for  the  super- 
visory work  should  be  paid  by  the  State  and  by  the  county  in  equal 
amounts.  Minimum  general  education,  professional  education,  and 
successful  teaching  experience  should  be  required.  The  supervisors 
should  be  directly  responsible  to  the  county  superintendent  for  their 
work,  should  be  appointed  on  the  recommendation  of  the  county 
superintendent,  and  hold  office  while  giving  satisfactory  service. 
The  supervisory  districts  should  be  created  and  the  supervisors 
appointed  by  a  county  board  of  education,  and  should  remain  in  office 
until  resigning  or  until  removed  by  the  board  for  cause.  Each  county 
superintendent,  when  eligible  as  far  as  general  education,  'profes- 
sional education,  and  successful  teaching  experience  is  concerned, 
should  serve  as  supervisor  of  one  district  in  his  county  and  should 

1  The  state  school  code  committee  recommend  that  the  first  sentence  to  this  point  should  read:  "Pro- 
vision for  expert  supervision  of  rural  schools  by  dividing  each  county,  exclusive  of  supervised  city  systems, 
into  supervisory  districts  containing  approximately  20  teachers  each."  It  also  recommends  that  provision 
should  be  made  so  that  two  counties  may  maintain  a  joint  supervisory  district. 

2  It  would  be  advisable  to  have  these  supervisors,  when  qualified  for  the  work,  serve  also  as  boys'  and  girls' 
agricultural  and  canning  club  agents  for  the  extension  department  of  the  State  agricultural  college.  The 
summer  months  would  be  free  to  devote  to  the  club  work  supervising  the  home  projects.  Whenever  such 
arrangement  is  made,  an  equitable  part  of  the  total  salary  should  be  paid  by  the  extension  department. 


100  EDUCATIONAL  SUEVEY  OF  WYOMING. 

receive  the  extra  pay  for  this  work.^  This  would  increase  the  income 
of  county  superintendents,  so  that  the  position  would  be  more 
desirable  than  at  present. 

V,  A  County  Board  of  Education. 

To  divide  the  county  into  supervisory  districts  and  appoint  super- 
visors as  recommended  above,  provision  should  be  made  in  each 
coimty  for  a  county  board  of  education.  The  board  should  appoint 
the  county  superintendent  also.  (See  p.  88.)  The  board  should 
consist  of  five  persons,  not  more  than  two  of  whom  should  be 
residents  of  incorporated  cities  with  independent  systems  employing 
school  superintendents.  The  members  should  be  elected  by  popular 
vote  for  six-year  terms,  two  of  which  would  expire  each  biennium. 
Members  should  serve  without  pay,  but  should  receive  necessary 
expenses. 

The  county  board  should  have  also  the  following  additional  func- 
tions, powers,  and  duties: 

1.  To  advise  the  county  superintendent  in  the  duties  conferred 
upon  him  by  constitution  or  law.       , 

2.  To  exercise  the  functions,  powers,  and  duties  now  conferred 
upon  "  the  district  boundary  board,''  viz,  full  authority  to  determiae 
the  number  and  the  boundaries  of  local  districts  into  which  the 
county  is  divided. 

3.  To  exercise  the  functions,  powers,  &nd  duties  now  conferred 
upon  the  board  of  directors  of  the  county  li  brary,  so  that  the  schools 
may  be  branch  libraries,  and  the  benefits  of  the  Hbraries  may  be 
available  both  for  the  children  and  the  adults  living  outside  of  the 
county  seat.2 

4.  To  fix  the  coimty  school  levy  within  statutory  hmits  and 
apportion  the  county  school  funds  in  whatever  way  may  be  pro- 
vided by  law.  A  recommendation  concerning  the  manner  of  appor- 
tionment is  given  below. 

5.  To  approve  the  location  and  plans  of  all  schools  that  receive 
any  portion  of  the  county  funds  for  any  purposes. 

6.  To  purchase  or  direct  the  purchase  of  all  textbooks  and  instruc- 
tional suppHes,  such  as  maps  and  charts,  upon  the  recommendation 
of  the  r^ounty  superintendent  and  the  district  supervisors  and  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  State  board  of  education. 

7.  To  assume  full  control  and  management  of  all  high  schools  in  the 
county  except  those  in  independent  incorporated  city  systems 
employing  superintendents.  The  high  schools  under  the  control  of 
the  county  board  should  be  supported  entirely  from  county  funds 
(plus  the  State  apportionment).     They  should  be  free  to  residents  of 

iThis  is  suggested  as  a  temporary  arrangement,  to  be  in  effect  only  until  the  constitutional  limit  to 
county  superintendents'  salaries  is  removed. 
2  The  School  Code  Committee  do  not  adopt  this  recommendation. 


RECOMMEISTDATIOITS.,  '      101 

the  county,  and  children  attending  who  live  itfo/e  olian  5  miles  tiomaiiy 
high  school  should  receive  from  the  county  school  funds  an  amount 
sufficient  to  pay  in  part  for  transportation  for  days  actually  attended 
or  for  board  and  lodging  near  the  school,  in  the  discretion  of  the  board. 
High  schools  in  incorporated  districts  employing  superintendents 
should  receive  from  county  funds  a  per  capita  amount  based  on  the 
aggregate  daily  attendance  not  greater  than  the  per  capita  cost  of 
maintenance  on  the  same  basis  of  the  high  schools  of  the  county 
under  the  county  board.^ 

8.  To  approve  the  appointment  and  salaries  of  teachers  employed 
in  the  county  (except  those  in  independent  incorporated  city  districts 
under  superintendents)  who  receive  their  salary  in  whole  or  in  part 
from  county  funds,  with  full  power  to  dismiss  teachers  for  cause. 

9o  To  provide  adequate  clerical  assistants  to  county  superintend- 
ents. 

VL  Independent  Supervision  of  City  Districts. 

It  should  be  provided  that  incorporated  city  districts  employing 
superintendents  devoting  half  or  more  than  haK  of  their  time  to 
supervision  may,  on  the  approval  of  the  State  board  of  education, 
be  independent  of  the  authority  of  the  county  board  and  of  the 
county  superintendent  in  so  far  as  the  administration  of  the  schools 
is  concerned.  They  should  be  required  to  make  to  the  county 
superintendent  such  reports  as  may  be  required  by  the  coimty 
board  and  the  State  department  of  education;  also  before  receiving 
any  portion  of  the  State  or  coimty  funds  to  submit  to  the  county 
board  satisfactory  evidence  that  schools  have  been  maintained  the 
minimum  required  term  and  taught  by  teachers  holding  certificates 
issued  by  the  State  department,  and  that  aU  other  regulations  of 
the  State  have  been  complied  with. 

VII.  A  More  Equitable  Distribution  of  tJie  Burden  of  the  Support  of 
Education. 

Provision  should  be  made  for  a  constitutional  amendment  so  that 
the  State  school  funds  may  be  distributed  to  the  counties,  one-half 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  teachers  employed  and  one-half  on 
the  aggregate  daily  attendance,^  and  reapportioned  in  the  county  as 
the  legislature  may  determine  from  time  to  time  as  conditions  change. 
Apportionment  of  the  State  funds  by  the  coimties  to  the  districts 

1  The  school  code  committee  recommend  this  paragraph  to  read  as  follows:  "7.  To  assume  full  control  and 
management  of  all  high  schools  in  the  county  except  those  in  independent  incorporated  city  systems  employ- 
ing superintendents.  The  high  schools  under  the  control  of  the  coimty  board  should  be  supported  by  a 
county  high-school  tax  assessed  on  all  taxable  property  in  the  county  except  that  included  in  independent 
incorporated  city  districts  supporting  high  schools.  The  covmty  high-school  tax  may  be  used  in  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  board  for  paying  tuition  of  pupils  attending  high  schools  in  independent  districts  or  in  adj  acent 
counties.    The  county  high  schools  should  be  free  of  tuition  to  residents  of  the  county." 

2  The  State  school  code  committee  insert  here  the  words  "double  amount  being  given  for  high-school 
teachers  and  attendance." 


102  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF   WYOMING. 

6n  tie  same  ba§is  suggested  would  be  advisable  until  conditions 
change  materially. 

A  continuing  State  fund  should  be  provided  by  appropriation  or 
by  millage  tax  which,  together  with  the  income  from  the  permanent 
school  funds  and  school  lands,  would  constitute  an  annual  school 
fund  equal  in  amount  to  approximately  one-third  of  the  total  cost  of 
maintenance  of  schools,  and  distributed  as  above.  Before  distribu- 
tion a  portion  should  be  reserved  for  the  employment  of  assistants 
in  the  State  department  of  education,  the  partial  payment  of  the 
salaries  of  supervisors  employed  in  the  counties,  and  for  special  aid 
to  assist  in  the  support  of  vocational  agricultural  schools  and  courses, 
domestic  science  schools  and  courses,  trade  schools,  and  other  insti- 
tutions. 

A  larger  part  of  the  support  of  schools  should  come  from  State  and 
county  and  a  smaller  part  from  local  districts.  This  may  be  accom- 
phshed  by  increasing  the  county  school  tax  to  an  amount  equal  to 
$500  ^  multiplied  by  the  number  of  teachers.  This  should  be  appor- 
tioned by  the  county  board  to  the  various  districts  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  approved  teachers  employed.  In  determining 
the  number  of  teachers  to  be  used  as  a  basis  of  distribution,  only 
those  should  be  counted  whose  appointment  and  salary  have  been 
approved  by  the  county  board  and  who  are  teaching  in  schools  which 
the  board  has  specifically  authorized  to  be  held  and  which  have 
maintained  the  prescribed  minimum  term,  with  such  minimum 
attendance  as  the  board  may  prescribe;  further,  no  district  should 
receive  from  county  funds  (State  apportionment  not  included)  a 
sum  more  than  twice  as  great  as  the  amount  raised  by  local  district 
tax,  unless  the  local  tax  is  the  maximum  allowed  by  law.  Before 
distribution  the  amount  required  for  high-school  purposes  and  a 
portion  sufficient  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  county  board  of  educa- 
tion and  the  salary  and  traveling  expenses  of  the  district  supervisors 
should  be  set  aside. 

Local  districts  should  continue  to  tax  themselves  as  at  present,  the 
amount  to  be  collected  by  the  county  treasurer  and  held  in  the 
coimty  treasury  to  the  credit  of  the  district. 

The  county  treasurer  should  be  custodian  of  all  school  funds, 
whether  county  or  local,  holding  such  funds  to  the  credit  of  the 
individual  districts  and  paying  warrants  drawn  upon  them  only 
when  signed  by  two  members  of  the  local  board.  His  accounts  of 
receipts  and  disbursements  of  all  school  funds  should  be  audited  by 
the  coimty  board  or  its  agent. 

1  The  State  school  code  committee  recommend  an  amount  equal  to  $400  multiplied  by  the  number  of 
elementary  teachers;  also  that  the  words  "the  amount  required  for  high-school  purposes  and"  be  omitted. 
Both  of  these  changes  result  from  the  changed  suggestion  in  regard  to  the  support  of  high  schools. 
(Seep.  101.) 


RECOMMENDATIONS.  103 

VIII.  Requirements  for  a  Higher  Standard  of  General  and  Profes- 
sional Education  for  Teachers. 

The  legislature  should  fix  an  early  date  after  which  no  teacher 
should  be  engaged  who  has  not  an  education  equivalent  to  gradua- 
tion from  a  four-year  high  school  and  a  minimum  of  professional 
work  in  some  approved  school.  The  requirement  for  the  professional 
preparation  should  be  increased,  so  that  on  and  after  the  1st  of  Sep- 
tember, 1922,  it  will  include  graduation  from  a  two-year  course  in  a 
standard  normal  school  whose  entrance  requirements  presuppose  four 
years  of  standard  high-school  work  or  its  equivalent. 

The  county  institute  should  be  replaced  by  a  two-day  teachers' 
conference  with  the  county  superintendent  and  supervisors,  the 
money  now  appropriated  for  institutes  being  used  for  the  support  of 
summer  schools  with  sessions  four  to  six  weeks  in  length  and  under 
the  control  of,  and  at  such  places  as  may  be  determined  by,  the  State 
board  of  education.^ 

IX.  Provision  for  Professional  Training  for  Teachers. 

Provision  should  be  made  for  securing  a  larger  proportion  of  pro- 
fessionally trained  persons  to  teach  in  the  public  schools.  At 
present  the  State  university  is  the  only  institution  in  the  State  which 
gives  such  professional  training.  It  may  be  possible  that  the  univer- 
sity can  make  such  adjustments  as  will  enable  it  fully  to  meet  the 
demands.  The  need  must  be  met  either  through  the  university 
itself  or  by  establishing  additional  normal  schools  to  be  conveniently 
located  in  different  parts  of  the  State  and  under  the  management 
and  direction  of  the  State  board  of  education. 

X.  Reorganization  of  the  Plan  of  Certification  of  Teachers. 
Provision  should  be  made  for  transferring  to  the  State  board  of 

education  the  administration  of  the  certification  of  teachers.  A 
division  of  the  department  of  education  should  be  created  as  a 
Teachers'  Employment  and  Certification  Bureau.  The  division 
should  be  under  the  immediate  charge  of  a  chief  appointed  by  the 
State  board  on  the  recommendation  of  the  State  superintendent.  It 
should  have  on  file  a  register  of  available  teachers  with  qualifications, 
etc.,  and  be  ready  to  recommend  teachers  for  vacancies  upon  request. 
It  should  hold  teachers'  examinations  for  certificates  or  examine  cre- 
dentials relative  to  their  education,  training,  and  experience,  and 
recommend  candidates  to  the  State  superintendent  for  certification. 
The  rules  and  regulations  relative  to  certification  requirements,  the 
kinds  of  certificates  to  be  issued,  and  the  requirements  for  each  cer- 

1  The  State  school  code  committee  recommend  this  paragraph  to  read  as  follows:  "The  county  institutes 
should  be  replaced  by  a  two-day  rural  teachers'  conference  with  the  county  superintendent  and  super- 
visors. Provision  should  also  be  made  for  summer  schools  under  the  control  of  and  at  such  places  as  may 
be  determined  by  the  State  board  of  education." 


104  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMING. 

tificate  should  be  left  entirely  to  the  State  board  of  education,  acting 
upon  recommendation  of  the  State  superintendent. 

XI.  Provision  for  Vocational  Education. 

Vocational  courses  in  agriculture,  household  science,  and  the  more 
usual  trades  for  both  boys  and  girls  should  be  estabhshed  in  special 
departments  in  selected  high  schools  in  the  State.  This  work  should 
be  imder  the  direct  supervision  of  the  State  department  of  education 
and  should  receive  annually  from  the  State  department  special  State 
financial  aid,  as  experience  in  other  States  has  shown  that  satisfac- 
tory vocational  work  wiU  not  be  established  otherwise,  and  to  be  sat- 
isfactory must  be  properly  supervised. 

XII.  Control  of  S 'pedal  State  Institutions  hy  the  State  Board. 

ITie  State  School  for  the  BHnd  and  Deaf,  at  Cheyenne;  the  Wyom- 
ing School  for  Defectives,  at  Lander;  and  the  Wyoming  Industrial 
Institute,  at  Worland,  should  be  under  the  complete  administrative 
control  and  management  of  the  State  board  of  education. 


APPENDIX.— STATISTICAL  COMPARISON. 

Per  cent  of  school  population  (5  to  18  years  of  age)  enrolled^  1913-14. 


United  States— 74  per  cent. 


North  Atlantic  Division: 
Rhode  Island— 63  per  cent. 


New  Hampshire — 65  per  cent. 


New  York — 68  per  cent. 


Pennsylvania— 68  per  cent. 


Massachusetts— 72  per  cent. 


New  Jersey — 74  per  cent. 


Connecticut— 77  per  cent. 


Vermont— 77  per  cent 


Maine — 88  per  cent. 


North  Central  Division: 
Wisconsin— 66  per  cent. 


Illinois — 71  per  cent. 


South  Dakota— 71  per  cent. 


Ohio— 75  per  cent 


^ 


Minnesota— 76  per  cent. 


North  Dakota— 77  per  cent. 


Michigan— 78  per  cent. 


Indiana— 79  per  cent. 


Missouri— 80  per  cent. 


Kansas— 83  per  cent. 


Nebraska— 85  per  cent. 


Iowa— 87  per  cent. 


South  Atlantic  Division: 
Virginia— 66  per  cent. 


Delaware— 69  per  cent. 


Georgia— 69  per  cent. 


Maryland- 70  per  cent. 


South  Carolina^-73  per  cent. 


Florida— 76  per  cent. 


West  Virginia— 78  per  cent. 


North  Carolina— 79  per  cent. 


District  of  Columbiar— 80  per  cent. 


South  Central  Division: 
Louisiana— 51  per  cent. 


Texas— 62  per  cent. 


AIabamar-66  per  cent. 


Kentucky— 77  per  cent. 


—80  per  cent. 


Oklahoma— 80  per  cent. 


Arkansas— 84  per  cent. 


Tennessee— 88  per  cent. 


Western  Division: 
New  Mexico— 60  per  cent. 


Nevada— 72  per  cent. 


Arizona— 77  per  cent. 


Washington— 77  per  cent. 


Oregon— 78  per  cent. 


Utah— 80  per  cent. 


Idaho— 82  per  cent. 


Colorado— 84  per  cent. 


WYOMING-84  per  cent. 


Montana— 87  per  cent. 

CaliforDia— 90  per  cent.  ^^ 


106  EDUCATIONAL  SUKVEY  OF   WYOMING. 

Number  attending  daily  for  each  100  pupils  enrolled,  1913-14. 

United  States— 74. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
New  Jersey— 77. 
Maine— 78. 
Vermont— 79. 


Rhode  Island— 79. 


Connecticut— 79. 


New  Hampshire— 79. 


Pennsylvania— 80 . 


New  York— 81. 


Massachusetts — 85. 


North  Central  Division: 
North  Dakota— 69. 
Missouri— 73. 


Wisconsin— 74. 


Iowa— 74. 


Nebraska— 75. 


South  Dakota^76. 


Michigan— 77. 


Minnesota— 78. 


Kansas— 79. 


Indiana — 80. 


Ohio— 81. 


Illinois— 87. 


South  Atlantic  Division: 
Delaware— 63. 
Georgia— 65; 


Maryland— 65. 
Virginia^-66. 


South  Carolina— 66. 


North  Carolinar-68. 


West  Virginia^70. 


Florida^71. 


District  of  Columbia— 82. 


South  Central  Division: 
Kentucky— 55. 


Mississippi— 61. 


Alabama— 62. 


Oklahomar-65. 


Texas— 67. 


Louisiana— 69. 


Western  Division: 
Colorado— 67. 
Arizona— 68. 
Nevada— 73. 


New  Mexico— 74. 


Montana^74. 


Idaho— 75. 


Washington— 76. 


Califomia^-78. 


WYOMING-82. 


Utah— 82. 


Oregon— 92. 


APPENDIX.  107 


Average  number  of  days  attended  by  every  child  5  to  18  years  of  age,  1913-14. 

3tates— 87, 


United  States— 87. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
New  Hampshire— 88. 


Pennsylvania- 


Rhode  Island— 96. 


New  Jersev— 104. 


New  York- 104. 


Vermont— 106. 


Massachusetts— 1 1 1 . 


Connecticut— 1 13 . 


Maine— 116. 


North  Central  Division: 
Wisconsin— 81. 


North  Dakota— 86. 


South  Dakota— 88. 


Minnesota— 95. 


Missouri— 95. 


Indiana— 99. 


Illinois— 99. 


Ohio— 103. 


Michigan — 104. 


Nebraska— 108. 


Iowa— 115. 


South  Atlantic  Division: 

South  Carolina— 50. 

Virginia — 59. 

Georgia— 63. 


North  Carolina— 65. 


Florida— 66. 


Delaware— 74. 


West  Virginia- 74. 
Maryland— 81. 


District  of  Columbia— 115. 


South  Central  Division: 
Louisiana— 46. 
Alabama — 51. 
Texas— 55. 


Kentucky— 60. 


Oklahoma— 70. 


Arkansas— 73. 


Tennessee— 77. 


Western  Division: 
New  Mexico— 61. 
Arizona— 81. 

Nevada — 85. 

Idaho-93. 


Colorado— 96. 


WYOMING— 96. 


Washington— 103. 


Montana — 105. 


Utah— 107. 


Oregon— 111. 


Califomia— 122. 


108  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF   WYOMING. 

J 
Number  of  pupils  in  high  schools  per  1,000  in  elementary  schools,  1913-14. 

United  States— 76. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
Pennsylvania— 71 . 


New  Jersev — 80, 


Connecticut— 94. 


Rhode  Island— 95. 


New  York— 98. 


Maine— 112. 


Vermont— 113. 


Massachusetts— 131 . 


New  Hampshire— 132. 


North  Central  Division: 
North  Dakota— 63. 
Missouri— 66. 


South  Dakota— 74. 


Illinois— 77. 


Michigan— 93. 


Wisconsin— 93. 


Minnesota— 94. 


Ohio— 94. 


Indiana— 101. 


Iowa— 102. 


Nebraska— 103. 


Kansas— 117. 


South  Atlantic  Division: 
South  Carolina— 29. 
Florida— 33. 
WestVn-ginia- 35. 
North  Carolina— 35. 
Georgia— 36. 


Maryland— 57. 
Vnrginia- 58. 


Delaware— 66. 


District  of  Columbia— 152. 


South  Central  Division: 
Mississippi— 25. 


Kentucky— 32. 


Alabama— 36. 


Louisiana— 36. 


Oklahoma-41. 
Texas— 64. 


Western  Division: 
New  Mexico— 37. 
Arizona— 60. 


WYOMING-67. 


Montana— 78. 


Idaho— 82. 


Nevada— 51. 


Colorado— 100. 


Utah— 118. 


Washington— 125. 


Oregon— 125. 


CaUfomia-134. 


APPENDIX.  109 

Number  of  pupils  in  colleges  per  1,000  in  elementary  schools,  1913-14. 

United  States— 19. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
New  Jersey — 10. 
Rhode  Island— 18. 
Vermont— 20. 


Pennsylvania— 20. 


Connecticut— 21, 


Maine— 22. 


New  Hampshire— 24. 


New  York— 25. 


Massachusetts— 35 . 


North  Central  Division: 
North  Dakota— 14. 
Missouri— 20. 
"Ohio— 21. 


Minnesota— 21. 


Iowa— 21. 


South  Dakota  —22. 


Michigan— 25. 


Kansas— 27. 


Indiana— 28. 


Nebraska- 


Ulinois— 30. 


Wisconsin — 30. 


South  Atlantic  Division: 
Delaware — 4. 
Florida— 7. 
West  Virginia— 9. 
North  Carolina— 10. 
Georgia— 10. 
South  Carolina— 11. 
Virginia— 15. 


Maryland— 22. 


District  of  Columbia — 103. 


South  Central  Division: 
Arkansas— 4. 
Di- 7. 


Alabama— 9. 
Oklahoma— 9. 


Kentucky— 11. 


Tennessee — 11, 


Louisiana— 12. 
Texas— 13. 


Western  Division: 
New  Mexico — 5. 
WYOMING-6. 
Montana— 9. 
Idaho— 11. 
Arizona— 14. 


Utah— 20 

Colorado— 24. 


Washington— 25. 
Nevada— 2^. 
Oregon— 28. 


California— 35. 


Note.— It  should  be  remembered  in  the  interpretation  of  this  data  that  such  States  as  New  York,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  California  have  many  nonresident  students  enrolled  in  colleges  within  their  borders. 


110  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMING. 

Number  of  men  21  years  arid  over  for  each  100  children  5  to  18  years  old  (1910). 

United  States— 107. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
Pennsylvania— 105. 


New  Jersey— 110. 


Rhode  Island— 111. 


Connecticut— 115. 


Massachusetts — 116. 


New  York— 117. 


Vermont— 119. 


Maine— 120. 


New  Hampshire— 123. 


North  Central  Division : 
North  Dakota— 93. 


Wisconsin— 93. 


Nebraska— 95. 


South  Dakota— 96. 


Iowa— 98j_ 
Missouri— 


Minnesota— 99. 
Indiana— 106. 


Illinois— 108. 


Michigan— 109. 
Ohio— 113, 


South  Atlantic  Division: 
South  Carolina— 58j 


North  Carolina^-63. 


Georgia— 66. 


Virginia— 74. 


West  Virgin^'a— 84. 


Florida^87. 


Maryland— 94. 


Delaware— 10*7. 


District  of  Columbia— 144. 


South  Central  Division: 
Mississippi— 65. 

Alabama— 67. 


Louisiana— 70. 


Arkansas— 70. 


Texas— 72. 


Tennessee— 74. 


Oklahoma— 78. 


Kentucky— 79. 

Western  Division: 
Utah— 85^ 


New  Mexico— 88. 


Idaho— 113. 


Colorado— 125. 


Arizona— 129. 


Oregon— 148, 


Washington— 151 . 


Montana— 165. 


California— 169. 


WYOMING— 179. 


Nevada— 180. 


APPENDIX.  Ill 

Value  of  jaroperty  for  each  child  5-18  years  old  {1913). 

United  States— $7,337. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
Maine— $5,900. 


New  Hampshire— $6,300. 


Pennsylvania— $6 ,900. 


New  Jersey— 1:8,100. 


New  ^ork— $9,900. 


North  Central  Division: 
Missouri— $6,300.       


Wisconsin— $6,400. 


Michigan— $7,100. 


Indiana— $7,200. 


Ohio— $7,300. 


South  Dakota— 7,500. 


Mumesota^$8,900. 


400. 


Illinois— $10,000. 


Missouri— $10,700. 


North  Dakota— $10,900. 


Iowa— $12,700. 


South  Atlantic  Division: 


North  Carolina— $2,200. 
South  Carolina— $2,500. 
Georgia— $2,600. 
Virginia— $3,400. 


Delaware— $5,700. 


Maryland— $5.700. 


"West  Virginia— $5,800. 


South  Central  Division: 
Mississippi— $2,100. 


700. 


Alabama— $2,900. 
Kentucky— $3.100. 
Arkansas— $3,400. 
Louisiana— $3,800. 
Texas— $5,000. 


Oklahoma- $7,300. 


Western  Division: 
New  Mexico— $4,700. 

Idaho-$5,900. 


Arizona— $8,600. 


WYOMING— $10,200. 


Washington— $10,400. 


Oregon— $11,100. 


Colorado— $11,100. 


Montana— $12,300. 


California— $15,500. 


Nevada^$28,40O. 


H2  EDUCATION-AL   SURVEY  OF  WYOMIITG. 

Expenditure  for  school  purposes  per  f  10,000  of  estimated  wealth,  1911-12, 
United  States— $25.7. 

North  Atlantic  Division;  ' 

New  York— $23.2. 

Rhode  Island— $24.8 

Connecticut— $27.2 

Pennsylvaniar-$27.5. 

New  Hampshire— $28 

Maine— $29.5. 

Vennonfr--$34.4. 

New  Jerse 

Massachusetts— $35.7 

North  Central  Division 
Iowa— $18.6. 

Illinois— $22.1. 


Nel)raskar-$23.1. 


Missouri— $25.2. 


North  Dakota^$25.5. 


Wisconsin— $26.2. 


Minnesotar-$27.4. 


South  Dakotar-$29.4. 


Michigan— 30.8. 


Indianar— $31.7. 
Ohio— $32.4. 


South  Atlantic  Division: 
South  Carolinar— $17.6. 


Maryland— $19. 


Delaware— $19.6. 


North  Carolina— $20.9. 


Georgia^— $21.4. 


West  Virginia^-$21.8. 


Florida;-$22.2. 
Virginiar-$23. 


District  of  Columbia^$25.5 


South  Central  Division: 
Oklahoma— $16.6. 


Alabama— $17.4. 


Arkansas— $21. 
Texas— $21.1. 


Louisiana— $21.3. 


Tennessee— $28.8. 


Kentucky— $29.5. 


Western  Division: 
Nevadar-$13.7. 


New  Mexico— $21.7. 


Arizona— $26.3. 


Colorado— $27.3. 


WYOMING— $28.2. 


California— $28. 


Montana— $29.2. 


Oregon— $31.3. 


Washington— $32.7. 
Utah— $46.4. 
Idkho-$48.6. 


APPENDIX.  113 

Average  value  of  school  property  per  child  of  school  age^  1913-14. 
United  States— ?55. 


North  Atlantic  Division: 
Vermont— $55. 
Maine— $57. 


New  Hampshire— $62. 


Pennsylvania— $62 . 


Rhode  Island— $66. 


Connecticut— $82. 


New  Jersey— $85. 


New  York— $100. 


Massachusetts— $109. 


North  Central  Division: 
Wisconsin— $36. 
South  Dakota— $52. 


Missouri— $55. 


Kansas— $57. 


North  Dakota— $60. 


Michigan— $61. 


Iowa— $62. 


Nebraska— $66. 


Indiana— $71. 


Minnesota— $75. 


Ohio— $78. 


Illinois— $81. 


South  Atlantic  Division: 
North  Carolina— $12. 
South  Carolina— $12. 
Georgia— $15. 
Virginia- $19. 
Florida— $21. 
Maryland— $31. 


West  Virginia— $33. 
Delaware— $62. 


District  of  Columbia— $151. 


South  Central  Division: 
)i— $5. 
Alabama— $13. 
Kentucky— $19. 
Louisiana— $19. 
Tennessee— $21. 
Arkansas— $21. 
Texas— $23. 


Oklahoma— $34. 


Western  Di^^sion: 
New  Mexico— $22. 
Arizona— $35. 


WYOMING-$60. 


Utah— $75. 


Idaho— $76. 


Colorado— $79. 


Montana^— $86. 


Oregon— $91. 


Nevada— $97. 


Washington— $101. 


California— $128. 


57460°— 17 8 


114  EDUCATIOITAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMING. 

ToUil  expenditure  per  capita  hosed  on  average  daily  attendance,  1913-14. 

United  States— «39.04. 

Nortn  Atlantic  Division: 
Maine— S34.27. 


New  Hampshire— ^37.06. 


Vermont— 138, 


Rhode  Island— $42.08. 


Pennsylvania— $46.71 . 


Connecticut— $48.24. 


New  York-$53.47. 


New  Jersey— ^{60.92. 


North  Central  Division: 
Missoiu-i— $33.97. 


9.29. 


Michigan— $42.63. 


Wisconsin— $42.75. 


Iowar-$42.i 


niinois-«42.92. 


Indiana—$45.21. 


South  Dakota^-$45.80. 


Nebraska— $47.14. 


Ohio-$48.S 


Minnesota— $52.08. 


North  Dakota— $64.45. 


South  Atlantic  Division: 
South  CaroIina^-$11.65. 

North  Carolfaiar-$12.39. 

Georgiar-$13.70. 

Virginia-$19.78. 

Florida-$21.88. 


West  Virginia^-$25.96. 


Delaware— $27.04. 


Maryland— $34.46. 


District  of  Columbi*-$57.84. 


South  Central  Division: 
Mississippi— $9.30. 


Tennessee— $13.61. 


Arkansas— $14.60. 
Alabama— $15.32. 
Kentucky— $22.90. 


Oklahoma— $24.46. 


Louisianar-$24j 


Texas— $25.: 


Western  Division: 
New  Mexico— $26.83. 


WYOMING-$48.08. 


Oregon— $48.46. 
Utah— $52.73. 


Idah(>-$55.06. 


Colorado— $55.49. 


Montanar-$64.54. 


.44. 


California— $70.98. 


Arizona— $71.39. 


Nevada— $77.14. 


APPENDIX.  115 

Expenditure  per  capita  hosed  on  average  daily  attendance:  salaries  only. 


United  States— $22.76. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
Maine— $19.43. 
Pennsylvania — $21.19. 
Vermont— $21.22. 
New  Hampshire— $21.42. 
Connecticut— $24.87. 
Rhode  Island— $25.37. 
Massachusetts— $29.58^ 


New  Jersey— $29. 


91. 


New  York— $35.97. 


North  Central  Division: 
Missouri— $21 .84. 


niinois— $23.63. 


Michigan- $23.92. 
Ohio— $24.75. 


Indiana— $25.25. 


Kansas— $25.53. 


Wisconsin— $26.33. 


Iowa— $27.37. 


Nebraska— $27.1 


Minnesota— $27.64. 


South  Dakota-«28.23. 


North  Dakota— $33.59. 


South  Atlantic  Division: 
North  Carolina— $7.81. 

South  Carolina— $8.38. 

Georgia-$10.36. 

Virginia— $12.32. 

Florida— $12.99. 

West  Virginia— $16.50. 

Delaware— $18.40. 

Marylaa'd^20.41. 

District  of  Columbia— ^40. 


South  Central  Division: 
Mississippi— $7.20. 

Tennessee— $9.36. 

Arkaaisaa— $11.01. 

Alabama— $11.71. 

Kentucky— $13.56. 

Louisiana— $16.13. 

Oklahoma— $16.32. 

Texas— $17.62. 


Western  Division: 
New  Mexico— $16.57. 

Utah— $23.31. 

Arizona— $25.60. 


Montana— $25.87. 


Oregon— $29.55. 


Idaho— $29.i 


WYOMING— $31.20. 


Colorado— $34.51. 


Washington— $39.27. 


California— $43.57. 


Nevada— $48.79. 


116  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF  WYOMING. 

Average  annual  salary  of  all  teachers,  1913-14, 
United  States-$525. 


North  Atlantic  Division : 
Maine— $399.        


Vermont— $405. 


New  Hampshire — $418. 
Pennsylvania— $459. 


Connecticut— $599. 


Rhode  Island— $702. 


Massachusetts— $729. 


New  Jersey— $851. 


New  York— $941. 


North  Central  Division: 
North  Dakota^$416. 
Ohio— $454. 


South  Dakotar-$456. 


Minnesota— $469. 


Missouri— $500. 


Iowa— $508. 


Wisconsin— $517. 


Michigan— $519. 


Nebraska^-$525. 


Indiana-$594. 


Kansas-«622. 


Illinois— $690. 


South  Atlantic  Division: 
North  Carolina— $243. 
South  Carolinar-$273. 
Georgia— $306. 
Virglniar-$307. 
Florida^-$327. 


West  Virginia— $350. 
Delaware— $381. 


Maryland— $545. 


District  of  Columbia— $1,005. 


South  Central  Division: 


Arkansas— $317. 


Tennessee— $321. 


Alabama— $3«. 


Kentucky— $359. 


Louisiana— $418. 


Texas— $422. 


Oklahoma— $422. 


Western  Division: 
WYOMING— $435. 


New  Mexico— $437. 


Oregon— $523. 


Idaho— $586. 


Colorado— $593. 


Montana— $636. 


Utah— $656. 


Nevada— $738. 


Washington— $800. 


APPENDIX.  117 

Length  of  term  in  days,  1913-14. 


United  States— 159. 


North  Atlantic  Division: 
Maine— 168, 


New  Hampshire— 172 


Pennsylvania— 1 72. 


Vermont— 173. 


New  Jersey— 183. 


Massachusett  s— 1 84 . 


Connecticut— 185. 


New  York— 190. 


Rhode  Island— 194. 


North  Central  Division: 
Indiana— 156. 


North  Dakota— 159. 


Minnesota— 160. 


Illinois— 161. 


South  Dakota— 163. 


Missouri— 163. 


Wisconsin— 168. 


Ohio-169. 


Nebraska— 170. 


Kansas— 172, 


South  Atlantic  Division: 
South  Carolina— 104. 


North  Carolina— 122. 


Florida— 123. 


Virginia— 136. 


West  Virginia^— 137. 
Georgia— 140. 


Delaware— 170. 


District  of  Columbia— 174. 


Maryland— 178. 


South  Central  Division: 
Tennessee— 122.         


[—123. 


Alabama— 125. 


Arkansas— 130. 


Louisiana— 130. 


Texas— 132. 


Oklahoma— 136. 


Kentucky— 140. 


Western  Division: 
New  Mexico— 135. 


WYOMING-139. 


Idaha-152. 


Oregon— 155. 


Arizona— 156. 


Nevada— 160. 


Utah— 163. 


Montana— 163. 


Colorado— 171. 


California— 174. 


Washington— 177. 


INDEX. 


Act  of  1869, 12-13. 

Administration,  State,  83-88. 

Attendance,  compulsory,  23;  data,  39-43;  statistics,  various  States,  106-108. 

Blind  and  deaf,  school,  20-21;  recommendations,  104. 

Boards  of  education,  county,  recommendations,  100-101. 

Carbon  County,  statistics  of  schools  (1870),  13. 

Census  and  enrollment,  40. 

Certification  of  teachers.    See  Teachers,  certification. 

Colleges,  early  history,  17.    See  also  University  of  Wyoming. 

Compulsory  attendance,  23. 

Constitution  of  Wyoming,  provision  for  education,  27-28. 

Cook,  Katherine  M.,  letter  to  Commissioner,  7-9. 

County  board  of  education,  recommendations,  100-101. 

County  superintendent  of  schools,  creation  of  office,  12;  powers  and  duties,  22-23; 

recommendations,  99;  training,  tenure,  and  salaries,  22,  61-65. 
Defectives,  education,  recommendations,  104. 
District  directors,  powers  and  duties,  12. 
District  treasurer,  powers  and  duties,  12. 
Elementary  schools,  number  of  pupils,  various  States,  108. 
Enrollment,  data,  39-43. 
Expenditures,  70. 

Expenses,  statistics,  various  States,  112,  114-116. 
Feeble-minded,  education,  21. 
Funds,  distribution  in  various  States,  92-94. 
High  schools,  early  history,  16;   establishment,  24;  enrollment,  42-43;  number  of 

pupils,  various  States,  108. 
Higher  education,  24-25. 
History  of  education,  11-26. 
Hoyt,  Governor,  and  University  of  Wyoming,  17. 
Indian  education,  20. 
Industrial  institute,  recommendation,  104. 
Instruction,  quality  and  methods,  53-60. 
Kindergarten,  early  history,  16. 
Letter  to  the  Commissioner,  7-9. 
Monahan,  A.  C,  letter  to  Commissioner,  7-9. 
Negroes,  and  separate  schools,  12. 
Organization,  local  administration,  89-91. 
Population  at  various  dates,  11;  per  cent,  various  States,  105. 
Private  schools,  early  history,  16-17. 
Property,  value,  in  various  States,  111,  113. 
Public  schools,  statistics,  26. 
Pupils,  statistics  (1875-1915),  14. 
Recommendations,  96-117. 
Revenue,  for  support  of  schools,  66-82. 

Rural  schools,  supervision,  60-61;  supervision,  recommendations,  99-100. 
Salaries,  county  superintendents,  22,  64-65;  teachers,  various  States,  115-116. 

119 


120  INDEX. 

School  districts,  23. 

School  funds,  23-24,  71;  distribution,  recommendations,  101-102. 

Schoolhouses,  construction  and  equipment,  29-38;  sanitary  requirements,  30-33;  sta- 
tistics (1875-1915),  14. 

School  hygiene,  30-33. 

School  officers,  nonpolitical,  99. 

School  sanitation.    See  School  hygiene. 

School  system,  present,  outline,  21-26. 

School  term,  statistics,  various  States,  117. 

State  board  of  education,  recommendations,  96-97.  ; 

State  board  of  examiners,  powers  and  duties,  15. 

State  department  of  public  instruction,  recommendations,  97-99. 

State  superintendent  of  education,  powers  and  duties,  21-22. 

Supervision,  city  districts,  recommendations,  101;  rural  schools,  60-61;  various  States, 
88-89. 

Supervision,  rural  schools,  recommendations,  99-100. 

Taxation,  inequality  of  present  system,  69-S2. 

Teachers,  certification,  14-15,  24,  44-47,  51-53;  recommendations,  103-104. 

Teachers,  methods  of  instruction,  53-60;  statistics  (1875-1915),  14. 

Teachers,  training,  25,  43-44,  48-53;  recommendations,  103. 

Teachers'  associations,  21. 

Teachers'  institutes,  15-16. 

Uinta  County,  statistics  of  schools  (1870),  13. 

University  of  Wyoming,  buildings,  19-20;  early  history,  17-20;  enrollment  (1890- 
1916),  19;  finances,  19;  registration,  25. 

Vocational  education,  Indians,  20;  recommendations,  104. 

Wyoming  School  Journal,  establishment,  21. 

Wyoming  schools,  statistics  (1883-1889),  13. 

o  I 

1 

i 

i 
I 


Binder 

Gaylord  Bros.,  Inc. 

Stockton,  Calif. 
T.  M.  Reg.  U.S.  Pat.  Off. 


r 


M3406ie 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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